As this weblog post is being published, my son, Alasdair, and I are in Estonia, visiting Tallinn, as well as the islands of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa. We have plans to visit Latvia and Lithuania is 2026. This weblog post is to provide context to the political situation these countries face.
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are small Baltic states with an area of 45 335, 64 589 and 65 300 km2 and populations of 1 331 824 (2021 census), 1 842 226 (2022 census) and 2 897 430 (2025 estimate) people, respectively. They been inhabited since at least 9 000 BC, 3 000 BC and 8 000 BC, respectively. These countries became part of the Soviet Union in 1944, but regained their independence 1991-08-20, 1991-08-21 and 1990-03-11, respectively. They do not want to be affiliated politically with Russia again.
The three countries have armed themselves and became members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on the same day, 2004-03-29, along with Bulgaria, Slovakia and Slovenia. Currently, continued participation or the dependability of USA in the alliance has been questioned. NATO has changed since the 2022 invasion of Ukraine. Finland and Sweden have joined, and Poland has increased its influence. Russian President Vladimir Putin (1952 – ) is unhappy with the participation of the Baltic states in NATO, referring to it as a serious provocation for Russia. His feelings for these three countries are similar to those he has for other former Soviet states suck as Georgia and Ukraine. They should submit to the will of Russia.
Because of Donald Trump’s vascilations about NATO, Europeans are starting to understand that nobody outside of Europe is prepared to resolve Europe’s challenges with Russia. The Baltic States, in particular, have to defend themselves, being adjacent to Russia and/ or Belarus.
Between 2001-09-12 and 2001-10-02 in response to 9/11 attacks in the United States, NATO’s collective self-defense provisions were undertaken at NATO’s own initiative, without a request by the United States, and occurred despite the hesitation of Germany, Belgium, Norway and the Netherlands. The United States accepted contributions on a bilateral, non-NATO basis from 14 of NATO’s then 19 member states as well as non-NATO members Russia, Latvia, Estonia and Slovakia. These ranged in size from Estonia’s contribution of a five-man explosives detection team, to the UK’s commitment of an infantry brigade and naval task force. It is the only time in NATO’s history its collective defense provisions have been invoked.
The Baltic States have legitimate concerns, particularly about the state-directed destruction of other places, supervised by Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. Historian Robert Conquest (1917 – 2015) wrote an account of this in The Great Terror: Stalin’s Purges of the 1930s (1968). It was revised as The Great Terror: A Reassessment (1990) and The Great Terror: 40th Anniversary Edition (2008). A more appropriate book for people living in the 21st century written with Jon Manchip White (1924 – 2013), is the fictional book What to Do When the Russians Come: a Survivor’s Guide (1984) which was intended to be a real survival manual in case of Soviet invasion.
These Baltic republics have supported Ukraine vigorously since the 2022 Russian invasion, they have supported citizen preparedness, encouraging citizens to stock enough food in their home to weather an emergency, and to have plans for family rendezvous outside the capitals. There is also a need for a mental preparation for a Russian invasion.
Many military analysts have assured European nations that the era of war in Europe had passed, and that their concerns no longer applied. Thus many Europeans assumed that a full-scale brutal war, like what occurred during the Second World War, was possible. With the Russian invasion of Georgia in 2008, followed by the invasion and annexing of Crimea in 2014, and then other parts of Ukraine in 2022, Europeans are slowly realizing their error. This has resulted in increased military spending, and in the stationing of NATO forces in other Baltic countries.
Europeans seem to be understanding the Russian threat, almost as fast as the American administration is repeating Kremlin propaganda. Because of the current American attitudes, NATO may devolve into a European defense alliance. There may be a need for something larger, a democratic alliance with other members such as: Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea and Taiwan. It should be noted that American troops have been in all three Baltic countries since the annexation of Crimea. There used to be about 120 000 Russian troops along the Estonian-Russian border. These are not there now, possibly because they were sent to Ukraine. On the other hand Putin declared that Narva, Estonia’s third-largest city, is historically part of Russia. It is closer to St. Petersburg than to Tallinn. Of its roughly 56 000 inhabitants, 96 percent speak Russian and a third hold a Russian passports. Indeed, about a quarter of Estonia’s population is ethnic Russian.
While the Russian military was able to seize territory in Georgia and Crimea, it has not had much success in this second invasion of Ukraine. One person suggested that Russia has gone from being the second-strongest army in the world, to being the second strongest in Ukraine. In the Baltic states, there have always been nebulous plans to mobilize their populations. These were never activated until the second Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ukraine was supposed to accept defeat in a couple of days/ weeks/ possibly months. However, the Ukrainian people rose up. This influenced Baltic strategy. Every adult citizen knows what to do in time of war. Often they bring their civilian capabilities for a potential war effort.
Here is a list of countries bordering Russia, from longest to shortest, with their border length in km: Kazakhstan = 7 512.8; China = 4 209.3; Mongolia = 3 485; Ukraine = 1 925.8; Finland = 1 272.8; Belarus = 1 239; Georgia = 875.5; Azerbaijan = 372.6; Estonia = 294; Latvia = 270.5; Lithuania = 266; Abkhazia = 255.4; Poland = 204.1; Norway = 195.7.
Today, troops and personnel from NATO Allies serve, train and exercise together in the east of the Alliance, representing a strong expression of unity and solidarity. Forces from contributing nations rotate in and out of the battlegroups; at any given time, they may be deployed to the battlegroups or stationed in their home countries with the ability to deploy rapidly, if needed.NATO is also integrating Finland and Sweden, in part by developing a presence in Finland, which has the longest border with Russia.
The Russian/ Belarus border with Europe is with NATO members, from north to south: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. This means that Russian plans to reincorporate the Baltic states into Russia has become increasingly complicated. An attack on any of these Baltic states, will be met with a response from Poland, Finland and others.
At the 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw, there was agreement to establish a eight Forward Land Forces (FLF) multinational battlegroups, provided by framework nations and other contributing Allies on a voluntary, fully sustainable and rotational basis. The battlegroups operate in concert with national home defence forces and are present at all times in the host countries. All eight battlegroups are fully combat-capable formations. While NATO forward presence in both the northeast and southeast of the Alliance, the emphasis here is on the northeast.
This forward presence was first deployed in 2017, with the creation of four multinational battalion-size battlegroups in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, led by the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany and the United States, respectively. In the southeast, there was increased NATO activity. However, it was only after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022-02, that NATA reinforced its existing battlegroups and established four more in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. At the 2022 Madrid Summit, NATO agreed to scale up beyond the battalion-size multinational battlegroups to brigade-size units, if needed. In 2024-07, Latvia scaled up to forming NATO Multinational Brigade Latvia. In 2024-10, the existing multinational battlegroup was transferred to this brigade. The battlegroups are not identical; their sizes and compositions are tailored to specific geographic factors and threats. Overall, military requirements guide each battlegroup’s composition.
As of February 2025, there were eight battlegroups on the eastern front. Those in the three Baltic states had the following participants: Host nation: Estonia; Framework nation: United Kingdom; Contributing nation: France. Host nation: Latvia; Framework nation: Canada; Contributing nations: Albania, Czechia, Iceland, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden. Host nation: Lithuania; Framework nation: Germany; Contributing nations: Belgium, Czechia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Norway.
Trumpism seems to focus on making America great again, or at least reconstructing America so that it looks as if it had not left the 1950s, possibly due to Donald Trump’s (1946 – ) age. I keep wondering when GM will resurrect 1957 Chevrolet Bel-Aires? The building of alliances is the antithesis of Trumpism, so the world is isolating USA. Russia may have had large-scale plans for the future of the world after subduing Ukraine, but its military campaign has proved so underwhelming, that it is resorting to hybrid warfare, including: sabotage, espionage and information operations. People have to be prepared for this.
To end on a more positive note. I am an eager reader of the annual Happiness reports. Lithuania ranked highest for people under the age of 30 in 2024. Latvia and Estonia are ranked 31st and 44th for their under-30 populations. More generally, Lithuania was ranked 19 for all age groups, ahead of Estonia in 34th place and Latvia in 46th. Unlike its neighbours, Lithuania has been steadily climbing up the happiness rankings since 2017, when it placed 52nd.
For decades, there have been two unsinkable aircraft carriers in the Baltic. Kaliningrad has served Russia, while Gotland served Sweden. That changed on 2024-03-07, when Sweden officially joined NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization = Organisation du traité de l’Atlantique nord = OTAN. Strategically, Gotland is one of the most important military locations in the world. This island is the alleged original location of the Goths. This post is probably less about the history of the Goths, and more about how Fårö became a film mecca for about forty years!
Jordanes was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat, widely believed to be of Gothic descent, who became a historian later in life. He wrote two works, Romana (551 or 552) about Roman history and Getica (551) about the Goths. The only other contemporary work about the Goths was written by Isidore of Seville’s (c. 560 – 636), Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum (624) = History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals and Suevi. These are three distinct works, with only the first one about the Goths.
The accuracy of Jordanes account is disputed, but he states that the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia, on the island of Gotland. In the 1st century, the Gutones – possibly early Goths, with their Wielbark culture – live near the lower Vistula River in current Poland. From the 2nd century, this culture expands southwards towards the Black Sea. By the late 3rd century it morphs into the Chernyakhov culture. By the 4th century, there are several distinct Gothic groups including: Thervingi, Greuthungi and Wulfila. were the most powerful. During this time, Wulfila began the conversion of Goths to Christianity.
In the late 4th century, the lands of the Goths were invaded from the east by the Huns. In the aftermath of this event, several groups of Goths came under Hunnic domination, while others migrated further west or sought refuge inside the Roman Empire. Goths who entered the Empire by crossing the Danube inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. These Goths would form the Visigoths, and under their king Alaric I, they began a long migration, eventually establishing a Visigothic Kingdom in Spain at Toledo.[3] Meanwhile, Goths under Hunnic rule gained their independence in the 5th century, most importantly the Ostrogoths. Under their king Theodoric the Great, these Goths established an Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy at Ravenna.
When my children were younger, I took them both on a trip to Gotland, taking the ferry from and to Oskarshamn. For me, one of the highlights of the trip was to take another ferry to the Fårö Island. Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman (1918 – 2007) lived (from about 1960) and died on Fårö. Several of his films were made there: Through a Glass Darkly (1961) = Såsom i en spegel = As in a Mirror (literal translation), Persona (1966), Hour of the Wolf (1968) = Vargtimmen , Shame (1968) = Skammen, The Passion of Anna (1969) = En passion = A passion (literal translation), and Scenes from a Marriage (1973) = Scener ur ett äktenskap, a television miniseries in 6 episodes. Liv Ullmann’s Faithless (2000) = Trolösa, based on a Bergman screenplay, was also filmed there. Fårö is the subject of Bergman’s documentary films Fårö Document (1970) and Fårö Document 1979.
The first Bergman film I experienced was The Virgin Spring = Jungfrukällan (1960, Swedish) set in medieval Sweden, filmed at Styggforsen = Ugly Falls (literal translation), Dalarna, a county on mainland Sweden bordering Norway, south of Trøndelag. It is close to the Swedish town of Mora, which is about 500 – 560 km south east of Cliff Cottage, depending on the route taken. The story was adapted by historical novelist/ screenwriter Ulla Isaksson (1916 – 2000), yes, a woman, from a 13th-century Swedish ballad. For me, this fact remained in the foreground when I viewed the film. Isaksson was interested in the conflict between paganism and Christianity. This conflict is ongoing, but reduced as more of the Scandinavian population becomes atheistic, or at least agnostic.
The film’s violence is unpleasant to watch, yet the father’s merciless response to the rape and murder of his young daughter, is understandable. The film has left a lasting impression. Yet, the reason for Bergman selecting Isaksson as the screenwriter, probably has to do with the criticism of a his previous film, the Seventh Seal = Det sjunde inseglet (1957). It was called metaphorical and allegorical, but historically inaccurate.
The second Bergman film I saw was The Magic Flute = Trollflöjten (1975) a film version of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s (1756 – 1791) opera Die Zauberflöte. The work is widely viewed as one of the most successful films of an opera ever made, and once again left a lasting impression on me. Again, this work was not made on Gotland, Originally, Bergman had wanted to film the production at Drottningholm Palace Theatre, but because of concerns about its fragility, the stage, including wings, curtains, and wind machines, was copied and erected in the studios of the Swedish Film Institute, in Stockholm.
Of the Bergman films made on Fårö, Persona has left the most lasting impression. It has been called many things including: controversial and experimental. It is a reflection of Carl Jung’s (1875 – 1961) theory of persona, including references to abortion, filmmaking, homosexuality, motherhood, vampirism and other subjects. The plot involves a young nurse named Alma = Bibi Andersson (1935 – 2019) and her patient, well-known stage actress Elisabet Vogler = Liv Ullmann (1938 -), who has suddenly stopped speaking. They move to a cottage, where Alma cares for Elisabet. The film then examines the situation where the care giver has difficulty distinguishing herself from her patient.
World Goth Day #18 will look at Gothic writing and fonts. It will be published on Thursday, 2026-05-22.
I remember 1980-05-18 clearly. I was living with Trish at her parents’ house in Vancouver, contemplating a move to Norway, or perhaps New Zealand. That day, however, was focused on Mount Saint Helens.
Mount St. Helens’ eruption sent a 2.5 billion cubic meters of debris into the upper Toutle Valley, millions of tons of sediment still pour into the Cowlitz River each year. 45 years after blast, Mount St. Helens’ sediment still causing costly problems. Mount St. Helens’ sediment still causing costly problems. Cities grapple to maintain drinking water and deep ports. In 2024, the Port of Longview spent more than half a million dollars dredging about 5 600 cubic meters of Mount St. Helens’ sediment from the mouth of the Cowlitz River and nearby port berths.
A sediment retention dam has been in place since 1989, but it needs updating. That work has been delayed, leaving nearby cities to find their own solutions to drinking water needs and maintain deep draft levels at ports.
Kelso is looking to update its water system due to impeding sediment, while Castle Rock and Longview have changed their systems in light of the blast. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers continues to monitor sediment levels.
The problem
Mountain runoff carries ashen remains of what was the volcano’s peak into the North Fork Toutle River and down to the Toutle. From there, the lower Cowlitz River ferries an average of nearly 3 millions tons of sediment through Castle Rock, Kelso and Longview, where it dumps into the Columbia River
On this post’s publication, 45 years after the destruction, there are suggestions that Mount Saint Helens may explode again.
Some Geography
I am learning that providing a mountain’s height is sometimes not enough. So I am now including prominence where it is relevant. Prominence measures the height of a mountain or hill’s summit relative to the lowest contour line encircling it but containing no higher summit within it. It is a measure of the independence of a summit. The key col = saddle around the peak is a unique point on this contour line. A parent peak is some higher mountain, selected according to various criteria.
This illustration shows the concepts of topographic isolation and prominence. Artwork: Andrew pmk.
As the forty-fifth anniversary of the eruption of Mount Saint Helens approaches there are two other volcanoes attracting my attention.
Mount Spurr
However, there are suggestions that Mount Spurr, in Alaska, will be the American volcano that erupts first. It has a height of 3 370 m, with a prominence of 585 m. It has been active: swelling, quaking and venting noxious gases. Fortunately, communities do not live on its slopes that would be destroyed by lava. Unfortunately, lots of ash could be produced, which could affect Alaska’s largest city, Anchorage about 130 km away.
The Alaska Volcano Observatory raised Mount Spurr’s Level of Concern Color Code from Green to Yellow, on 2024-10-23. The mountain is known aboriginally by the Dena’ina Athabascan name K’idazq’eni = that which is burning inside.
Axial Seamount Volcano
One of the most active volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest is the Axial Seamount. It sits on the Juan de Fuca Ridge about 480 km off the coast of Astoria, Oregon. In the recent past, Axial has erupted three times, in 1998, 2011 and 2015. After the 2015 eruption, the volcano saw a period of decreased earthquake activity and seafloor rise, which has since ramped up around late 2024. Earthquakes are an important proxy for volcanic activity. Axial saw hundreds, then thousands of earthquakes every day in the months leading up to its eruption in 2015. On the day of its last eruption 9 000 earthquakes occurred.
Cascadia Day
Some people are wanting to call 05-18 Cascadia Day, because of the eruption of Mount Saint Helens. People realized that the earth is (figuratively) alive! Alfred Wegener (1880 – 1930) proposed the idea of continental drift in 1912. This led to Arthur Holmes (1890 – 1965) to gain an understanding of the mechanical and thermal implications of mantle convection, which led eventually to an understanding of plate tectonics. This led to an understanding of the Cascadia Subduction Zone by the mid 1980s. Gradually, there was an awareness that massive forces including volcanic eruptions, mountain building, mega-earthquakes, tsunamis and more can be regarded as an interacting system working beneath the surface of the earth.
Below is the Doug = Douglas fir = Pseudotsuga menziesii Flag. Its designer, Alexander Baretich, describes it as a tricolor consisting of three horizontal stripes of blue, white and green, with a single Douglas fir tree in the center. The blue stripe represents the sky, Pacific Ocean and Salish Sea, as well as the myriad of rivers in the bioregion including the Columbia, the Snake and Fraser Rivers. The white represents clouds and snow and the green represents the region’s countless fields and evergreen forests. The tree symbolizes endurance, defiance and resilience against fire, flood, catastrophic change, and ever increasingly against the anthropocentric man.
Today, 2025-05-17, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is 160 years old. When it started out in 1865, the T stood for telegraph. Since then other technologies have become important for communication, so it appropriate that a more generic term has replaced telegraph.
Doreen Bogdan-Martin (1966 -), born in Monmouth, New Jersey, USA is the current Secretary-General of the ITU, elected at the 2022 Plenipotentiary Conference in Bucharest. She is the first woman to become ITU’s Secretary-General. She is fluent in English, French and Spanish.
So one area where the ITU works is in assigning radio frequencies for different purposes and call signs for various categories of radio frequency communication, including commercial stations and radio amateurs.
Call Signs
American call signs begin with K or W. For commercial radio and television stations K is in the west, while W is in the east. Currently, the Mississippi River is the dividing line. Thus, in my childhood, I watched KVOS television, on channel 12, broadcast from Bellingham, in Washington state. In New York state, WMHT is a Public Broadcasting System affiliate, on channel 17, broadcasting from Schenectady. Closer to, but west of the Mississippi River, KSDB-FM is a frequency modulated (FM) radio station broadcasting on 91.9 MHz. It is located in Manhattan = the Little Apple, Kansas. It is operated by Kansas State University, providing modern rock, urban, & local content. East of the Mississippi River, WAPL is another FM station, operated by Woodward Communications, Inc., in Appleton, Wisconsin. It broadcasts at 105.7 MHz and provides classic rock music.
Not all radio decisions are made by the ITU. Many decisions are national. For example, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) is a digital radio standard for broadcasting digital audio radio services in many countries around the world. Currently, 55 countries are actively running DAB broadcasts as an alternative platform to analogue FM. Norway is in the process of transitioning all radio stations away from FM broadcasting to Digital Audio Broadcasting only. The country’s national radio outlets transitioned to DAB on 2017-12-13. Local radio stations remain available in FM, but will have to transfer to DAB on or before the end of 2031. Only six years to go.
ITU secretary-general Doreen is an active amateur radio operator holding call sign KD2JTX. For amateur radio, the above geographical rules do not apply. K indicates USA, the second letter in the prefix used to indicate competence levels, now it seems that every new operator is place at the lowest level = D. The 2 indicates a location in the states of New York or New Jersey. Other locations include 6 = California, and 7 = north-western states. The suffix, here JTX, identifies the particular person holding the license.
In Norway, all amateur radio call signs used to begin with LA. When that sequence was used up, they started with LB, such as my LB2XJ, and Alasdair’s LB6HI. However, for people who insist on having a LA call sign there are some workarounds. In Canada, amateur radio call signs vary with the province/ territory. In British Columbia they start with VA7 or VE7. Details are shown in the map below.
Map showing prefixes for amateur radio call signs in Canada
CBUT-DT, a digital television station in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, has served as the West Coast flagship of CBC Television since 1953-12-16. In my childhood, it was known as channel 2, and ended in TV, to distinguish it from the amplitude modulation (AM) radio station, CBUT. It is part of a twinstick = duopoly with Ici Radio-Canada Télé station CBUFT-DT on channel 26. The two stations share studios at the CBC Regional Broadcast Centre in downtown Vancouver. Their transmitters are located on top of Mount Seymour in the district municipality of North Vancouver. CBUT is the first and oldest television station in Western Canada. Call sign rules are not followed by everyone. Most CBC stations use call signs assigned to Chile!
Time
In this post, I would like to emphasize ITU’s role as gatekeeper of timing on planet Earth. It is not the only organization concerned with time. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) = Union astronomique internationale, (UAI, in French) is an international non-governmental organization (INGO) with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreach, education, and development through global cooperation. It was founded on 1919-07-28 in Brussels, Belgium and is based in Paris, France.
Universal Time (UT) = mean solar time of the Greenwich meridian (0° longitude), replaced Greenwich Mean Time in 1928; it is now used to denote the solar time when an accuracy of about one second suffices. In 1955 the International Astronomical Union defined several categories of Universal Time of successively increasing accuracy. UT0 represents the initial values of Universal Time obtained by optical observations of star transits at various astronomical observatories. These values differ slightly from each other because of the effects of polar motion.
Universal Time (UT or UT1) is a time standard based on Earth’s rotation. Originally, it referred to mean solar time at 0° longitude. Because precise measurements of the Sun are difficult, UT1 is computed from a measure of the Earth’s angle with respect to the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF), called the Earth Rotation Angle (ERA, which serves as the replacement for Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time). UT1 is the same everywhere on Earth. UT1 is obtained by correcting UT0 for the effects of polar motion. Finally, an empirical correction to take account of annual changes in the Earth’s speed of rotation is added to UT1 to convert it into UT2. Coordinated Universal Time, the international basis of civil and scientific time, is obtained from an atomic clock that is adjusted so as to remain close to UT1; in this way, the solar time that is indicated by Universal Time is kept in close coordination with atomic time.
One would think that time would not be problematic in a relatively skinny country running north to south. That was generally not the case. Before universal time Norway was comparably late to introduce an official standard time, mainly due to the lack of a railway network connecting the country in an east–west direction. With the existence of a telegraph between Kristiania (Oslo) and Drammen, starting in 1855, the local time of Copenhagen, Denmark was used to measure time. That lasted until 1866 when it was replaced by Oslo local time, which was 7 minutes later.
In 1885 and then again in 1893 there were proposals to adopt a standard Norwegian time. Denmark, Germany and Sweden had adopted standard time = Central European time. Since the western and eastern Norwegian railways were planning to be interconnected ( it happened in 1909), Norway adopted Central European time on 1895-01-01. Since then, it has remained Greenwich + 1. Most church clocks were either moved backward (east of 15°E), or forward (west of 15°E) to use this time. Yes, previously, church clocks were the go-to time telling instrument.
Summer time
Summer time In Europe = Daylight Savings Time , in north America. From now on, DST will be used as an abbreviation for both of these terms.
The Journal de Paris, existed from 1777 to 1840. In 1784, it famously published an anonymous satirical letter written by Benjamin Franklin (1706 N.S. – 1790) encouraging Parisians to rise earlier to reduce candle usage. Through overreach, this has been credited with introducing the concept of DST.
One of the challenges with the current time system, is that many people have to change clocks twice a year. Even if computing devices = 9 units at Cliff Cottage, do that without intervention, I find no joy in having to change manual clocks = 12 units, twice a year. On a population level, that one hour transition results in unnecessary stress, including medical emergencies.
In Norway, DST was observed in 1916, 1943–45, and 1959–65. The last arrangement was controversial and it was discontinued. Sweden did not use DST during this period. When we first visited Scandinavia in 1979, DST was not in use. However, when we moved to Norway in 1980, DST had been reintroduced there and in Denmark and Sweden. Since 1996 Norway has followed the European Union regarding transition dates. Finland observed DST in 1942 and since 1981. Iceland has only observed summer time DST in 1917–1918 and in 1939–1968.
In North America, Yukon, most of Saskatchewan, and parts of British Columbia, Nunavut, Ontario and Quebec do not observe DST. Yukon and most of Saskatchewan use time zones equivalent to permanent DST. In USA, Hawaii does not observe DST. Neither does Arizona, but the Navajo Nation, which is mostly in Arizona but also partly in Utah and New Mexico, does. Inside the Navajo Nation is the Hopi Reservation, which does not observe DST.
Year-round DST was observed in 1942–1945 and 1974–1975.
Time changes fallow the old adage: spring forward = add an hour; fall back = subtract an hour. In north America the start of DST is the second sunday in March at 02:00. It ends on the first sunday in November at 02:00. In Europe, summer time starts last sunday in March at 01:00 UTC, and ends on the last sunday in October at 01:00 UTC.
In polls, most Europeans are opposed to DST. The European Commission tabled the draft directive on seasonal clock changes on 2018-09-12. This proposes: a) an end to biannual clock changes in all EU countries; b) a notification system to be used by an EU country if it wishes to change its standard time. DST was supposed to stop in 2021, but the Council of the European Union asked the European Commission for a detailed impact assessment before countries would decide on how to proceed. This has created meaningless delays.
Here is the latest consensus: support for permanent winter time in Denmark, the Netherlands (UTC+01:00) and Finland (UTC+02:00) while permanent summer time was supported in France, Germany and Poland (UTC+02:00) and Cyprus (UTC+03:00) excluding Northern Cyprus. Portugal, Spain, and Italy are in favour of keeping the current DST regime. In other words, there is no consensus.
Meanwhile in Norway, on Sommerøy = summer island, islanders in 2019 petitioned the Norwegian parliament to become a time-free zone. Yes, there are a few practical and legal challenges to be worked out. The island is part of Tromsø municipality, the largest city in Northern Norway. It is almost at 70° N, which experiences continuous daylight from 05-20 to 07-25, its midnight sun period. Conversely its midwinter dark period, lasts from 11-27 to 01-15.
The folly of DST and irregular time zones remains with the world today. Thus, on 2025-03-09 at precisely 02:00:00, Saint Pierre et Miquelon (population < 6 000) switched to DST, which is UTC -2 / Saint Pierre and Miquelon Daylight Time (PMDT), lost an hour in the process. Newfoundland and Labrador, followed half an hour later, changing to UTC -2:30 / Newfoundland DST (NDST). On 2025-11-02 at 02:00:00, in the respective time zones, time will revert back to standard or winter time, UTC -3/ in Saint Pierre and Miquelon Standard Time (PMST), duplicating an hour in the process. Latecomer, Newfoundland and Labrador, followed half an hour later to UTC -3:30. My hope – if only for health and safety reasons – is to avoid changing time twice a year.
Even worse that Newfoundland/ Labrador is Eucla/Australian Central Western Time. It’s UTC+8:45. It is the easternmost locality in Western Australia, located in the Goldfields-Esperance region, along the Eyre Highway, approximately 11 kilometres west of the South Australian border. According to the 2016 Australian census, Eucla had a population of 53.
Perhaps the best place to end is to enjoy the situation in Kiribati (pronounced kiribass), with its 21 inhabited islands, an area of 811.19 km2, and an estimated population of 121 388 in 2021. It occupies time zones UTC+13 and UTC+14. This puts it on the same days as Australia and New Zealand, but increases the nominal duration of a day to 26 hours. This is because before they switched time zones, they were in UTC-11 and UTC-10 respectively.
The Ordeal (2004), a Sculpture by Edith Breckwoldt (1937 – 2013) in Hamburg, Germany. “The ordeal. No man in the whole world can change the truth. One can only look for the truth, find it and serve it. The truth is in all places.” Text by Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Photo: Emma7stern, 2011-04-29.
Often, I am just a little too late. I began writing this post on 2025-04-12, eighty years and three days after the execution of Dietrich Bonhoeffer. I accept that I am imperfect, and missed the opportunity to publish this post on the anniversary of his death. So I will attempt to make this reflection more relevant to the current age, and publish it on the 80th anniversary of the official end of World War two, 2025-04-08.
In case anyone believes that only the Axis side of the war acted with evil intent, let me remind people that early in 1945-04, the first Allied-governed Rheinwiesenlager camps = Rhine meadow camps, a group of 19 concentration camps built in the Allied-occupied part of Germany by the U.S. Army to hold hundreds of thousands of captured or surrendered Axis Forces personnel. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force reclassified all prisoners as disarmed enemy forces, not prisoners of war. The legal fiction circumvented provisions under the Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of former combatants. By 1945-10 thousands had died in the camps from starvation, exposure and disease.
A reflection about Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906 – 1945).
Bonhoeffer lived a short and anonymous life. He was arrested in 1943-04 by the Gestapo and imprisoned at Tegel Prison in Berlin for 1½ years. His letters (and other papers) originate from here, but were smuggled out of prison. This correspondence contained provocative concepts about the world and the church. He was then transferred to Flossenbürg concentration camp, in the Fichtel Mountains of Bavaria, where he met his death by hanging.
Much of Bonhoeffer’s appeal relates to his radical thoughts about the future of Christianity in the postwar world. It is a world of religionless Christianity, a world without God. These thoughts appealed to the many for whom the old ideas and institutions of the church no longer seemed adequate. My interpretation is that God had died, or at the very least, failed people, by not suppressing the second world war. God was unwilling to intervene on the side of truth or fairness. God was willing to let might rule, and to sacrifice the innocent. This is the situation in every war since then.
Many theologians see a breach in Bonhoeffer’s thought, a demarcation that separates his later life, where he abandons almost everything that he had previously affirmed and confessed as a Christian. Others see a continuity between these later, radical concepts and what he had believed and written before.
Much of Bonhoeffer’s appeal related to Christology, the branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Such as whether Jesus was human or divine or both; Christ’s role as a messiah, including a role in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers. There are also questions about salvation, and the consequences of sin.
Much of Letters and Papers from Prison, involves a correspondence with Eberhard Bethge (1909 – 2000). Bethge carefully preserved most of what he received, collected additional materials from others after the war, then published the first edition in German in 1951, followed by an English language translation in 1952. Since then, new editions with additional content and improved translations have been published.
It appears that Bethge took years to conclude that these scattered and seemingly random scraps should be published. In postwar Germany there were many who considered Bonhoeffer a traitor because he conspired against Hitler. Bonhoeffer was not regarded as a proper academic, so his opinions were easy to dismiss. The book was regarded as dangerous, because it discusses the end of religion and living in a godless world. In addition, the book was esoteric and fragmentary. Upon its publication, it overcame all these obstacles and now stands as a landmark of theology.
The most relevant part of Bonhoeffer’s writing today deals with stupidity. He writes:
Stupidity is a more dangerous enemy of the good than malice. One may protest against evil; it can be exposed and, if need be, prevented by use of force. Evil always carries within itself the germ of its own subversion in that it leaves behind in human beings at least a sense of unease. Against stupidity we are defenseless. Neither protests nor the use of force accomplish anything here; reasons fall on deaf ears; facts that contradict one’s prejudgment simply need not be believed — in such moments the stupid person even becomes critical — and when facts are irrefutable they are just pushed aside as inconsequential, as incidental. In all this the stupid person, in contrast to the malicious one, is utterly self-satisfied and, being easily irritated, becomes dangerous by going on the attack. For that reason, greater caution is called for than with a malicious one. Never again will we try to persuade the stupid person with reasons, for it is senseless and dangerous.
If we want to know how to get the better of stupidity, we must seek to understand its nature. This much is certain, that it is in essence not an intellectual defect but a human one. There are human beings who are of remarkably agile intellect yet stupid, and others who are intellectually quite dull yet anything but stupid. We discover this to our surprise in particular situations. The impression one gains is not so much that stupidity is a congenital defect, but that, under certain circumstances, people are made stupid or that they allow this to happen to them. We note further that people who have isolated themselves from others or who live in solitude manifest this defect less frequently than individuals or groups of people inclined or condemned to sociability. And so it would seem that stupidity is perhaps less a psychological than a sociological problem. It is a particular form of the impact of historical circumstances on human beings, a psychological concomitant of certain external conditions. Upon closer observation, it becomes apparent that every strong upsurge of power in the public sphere, be it of a political or of a religious nature, infects a large part of humankind with stupidity. It would even seem that this is virtually a sociological-psychological law. The power of the one needs the stupidity of the other. The process at work here is not that particular human capacities, for instance, the intellect, suddenly atrophy or fail. Instead, it seems that under the overwhelming impact of rising power, humans are deprived of their inner independence, and, more or less consciously, give up establishing an autonomous position toward the emerging circumstances. The fact that the stupid person is often stubborn must not blind us to the fact that he is not independent. In conversation with him, one virtually feels that one is dealing not at all with a person, but with slogans, catchwords and the like, that have taken possession of him. He is under a spell, blinded, misused, and abused in his very being. Having thus become a mindless tool, the stupid person will also be capable of any evil and at the same time incapable of seeing that it is evil. This is where the danger of diabolical misuse lurks, for it is this that can once and for all destroy human beings.
Yet at this very point it becomes quite clear that only an act of liberation, not instruction, can overcome stupidity. Here we must come to terms with the fact that in most cases a genuine internal liberation becomes possible only when external liberation has preceded it. Until then we must abandon all attempts to convince the stupid person. This state of affairs explains why in such circumstances our attempts to know what ‘the people’ really think are in vain and why, under these circumstances, this question is so irrelevant for the person who is thinking and acting responsibly. The word of the Bible that the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom declares that the internal liberation of human beings to live the responsible life before God is the only genuine way to overcome stupidity.
But these thoughts about stupidity also offer consolation in that they utterly forbid us to consider the majority of people to be stupid in every circumstance. It really will depend on whether those in power expect more from people’s stupidity than from their inner independence and wisdom.
The other writing of Bonhoeffer, that I would like to include here, has to do with cheap and costly grace. He writes:
Cheap grace is the grace we bestow on ourselves. Cheap grace is the preaching of forgiveness without requiring repentance, baptism without church discipline, Communion without confession, absolution without personal confession. Cheap grace is grace without discipleship, grace without the cross, grace without Jesus Christ, living and incarnate. […] Costly grace is the gospel which must be sought again and again, the gift which must be asked for, the door at which a man must knock. Such grace is costly because it calls us to follow, and it is grace because it calls us to follow Jesus Christ. It is costly because it costs a man his life, and it is grace because it gives a man the only true life. It is costly because it condemns sin, and grace because it justifies the sinner. Above all, it is costly because it cost God the life of his Son …. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Discipleship (2003), pp. 47-9.
One of the world’s challenges in 2025 and beyond, is related to hybrid warfare. Frank Hoffman (? – ) defined hybrid warfare in 2007 as: the emerging simultaneous use of multiple types of warfare by flexible and sophisticated adversaries who understand that successful conflict requires a variety of forms designed to fit the goals at the time. Much of it is related to creating then enhancing divisions within a population. A popular way of doing this is through getting people with different religious affiliations to enter into conflicts with each other.
It is particularly easy for enemy agents to recruit different groups to oppose other groups. Imagine enemy agents pretending to be Protestants, attempting to recruit real Protestants to oppose people of other religions, which might include Jews, Catholics, Muslims and others, including non-believers. These same agents could then pretend to be members of these other religions, once again to recruit others. In this way, a country becomes increasingly split along religious lines.
It is important for everyone to know how hybrid warfare works. Its purpose is simple: to divide a nation into factions opposed to other factions.
Ondes Martenot is an electronic music instrument invented in 1928 by Maurice Martenot. Photo: 30rKs56MaE from Japan, taken in 2006-05-23 at The Atelier Jean-Louis Martenot in Neuilly (near Paris).
Ondes Martenot = Martenot waves = ondes musicales = musical waves is an early electronic musical instrument played with a keyboard or by moving a ring along a wire, creating wavering sounds similar to a theremin.
The ondes Martenot was invented in 1928 by Maurice Martenot (1898 – 1980) who, working as a radio operator in World War I, and was inspired by the accidental overlaps of tones between radio oscillators. He wanted to replicate these and hoped to bring the musical expressivity of the cello to this new instrument.
Units were manufactured to order. Over the following years, Martenot produced several variants/ versions/ models, introducing the ability to produce vibrato by moving the keys. Martenot was interested in mass-producion, which may have contributed to the instrument’s declining popularity following initial interest.
The ondes Martenot is unique among electronic musical instruments in its methods of control. It can be played with a metal ring worn on the right index finger. Sliding the ring along a wire produces theremin-like tones, generated by oscillator circuits using vacuum tubes, or transistors in the seventh model.
Martenot first demonstrated the ondes Martenot 1928-04-20, performing the Greek-French composer Dimitrios Levidis’ (1885/ 6 – 1951) Poème symphonique at the Paris Opera.
The third model, unveiled in 1929, had a non-functioning simulacrum of a keyboard below the wire to indicate pitch. This model also had a “black fingerguard” on a wire which could be used instead of the ring. It was held between the right thumb and index finger, which was played standing at a distance from the instrument. When played in this way, the drawer is removed from the instrument and placed on a bench next to the player. Maurice Martenot’s Pedagogical Manual for the ondes Martenot (1931), offers instruction on both methods of playing.
Later versions added a functioning keyboard; the keys produce vibrato when moved from side to side. This was introduced in the 1930s with the 84-key fourth version of the instrument. Subsequent versions had 72 keys. Combined with a switch that transposes the pitch by one octave, these instruments have a range from C1 to C8. A drawer allows manipulation of volume and timbre by the left hand. Volume is controlled with a touch sensitive glass lozenge.
Early models can produce only a few waveforms. Later models could simultaneously generate sine, peak-limited triangle, square, pulse, and full-wave rectified sine waves, in addition to pink noise, all controlled by switches in the drawer. The square wave and full-wave rectified sine wave can be further adjusted by sliders in the drawer. On the Seventh model, a dial at the top of the drawer adjusts the balance between white noise and the other waveforms. A second dial adjusts the balance between the three speakers. A switch allows a performer to select between the keyboard and the wire.
Further adjustments can be made using controls in the body of the instrument. These include several dials for tuning the pitch, a dial for adjusting the overall volume, a switch to transpose the pitch by one octave, and a switch to activate a filter. The drawer of the seventh version also includes six transposition buttons, which change the pitch by different intervals. These can be combined to immediately raise the pitch by up to a minor ninth.
Martenot produced four speakers, called diffuseurs, for the instrument. The Métallique features a gong instead of a speaker cone, producing a metallic timbre. It was used by the first ondes Martenot quartets in 1932. Another, the Palme speaker, has a resonance chamber laced with strings tuned to all 12 semitones of an octave; when a note is played in tune, it resonates a particular string, producing chiming tones. It was first presented alongside the sixth version in 1950.
The ondes Martenot was promoted by performance tours in Europe, North America and elsewhere in the world. In 1937, the ondes Martenot was displayed at the Exposition Internationale de Paris with concerts and demonstrations in an ensemble setting with up to twelve ondists performing together. Beginning in 1947, the ondes Martenot was taught at the Paris Conservatory, with Martenot as the first teacher.
This post began, not by examining the ondes Martenot, but by reading about ondist Jeanne Loriod (1928 – 2001), a French musician, regarded as the world’s leading exponent of the ondes Martenot. Yes, a player of the ondes Martenot is called an ondist. Her most notable performances included the Turangalîla-Symphonie. Her repertoire included 14 concertos, some 300 works with concertante parts for ondes and another 250 chamber works. She also performed in numerous film soundtracks, and published a definitive work on the instrument, Technique de l’onde electronique type Martenot (1987) in three volumes.
Olivier Messiaen (1908 – 1992) French composer, organist, teacher of composition and musical analysis as well as an ornithologist, was responsible for creating the most interesting music for l’ondes Martenot. A Wikipedia biographical article about Messiaen details his work, including his interest in birdsongs. Much of the fame associated the ondes Martenot is because of Messiaen’s compositions. After his death, his widow, Yvonne Loriod (1924 – 2010), Jeanne Loriod’s sister, arranged and edited four unpublished Feuillets inédits for ondes Martenot and piano which were published in 2001.
Others who used the instrument include: French composer, teacher and musicologist Charles Koechlin (1867 – 1950); French composer and music critic Florent Schmitt (1870 – 1958); French and American composer Edgard Varèse (1883 – 1965) described by Henry Millar (1891 – 1980) as the Stratospheric Colossus of Sound, did not use the ondes Martenot often, but it did appear in the premiere of Amériques in Paris (1918 – 1921, revised 1927); French composes Jacques Ibert (1890 – 1962); French composer, conductor and teacher Darius Milhaud (1892 – 1974) enjoyed the unusual nature of the ondes Martenot, used it several times in the 1930s for incidental music; Swiss composer Arthur Honegger (1892 – 1955), whose most notable work including the ondes Martenot was his dramatic oratorio, Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher (1935) in which the ondes Martenot’s unique sonority was used to augment the string section; British-Hungarian composer Mátyás Seiber (1905–1960); French composer, biographer and arts administrator Marcel Landowski (1915 – 1999); John Morton (1931-2014), performed works by Messiaen, Milhaud, Honegger and Bartok, amongst others at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere in the 1970s, as well as on television and radio; Québécois (Canadian) composer, pianist, poet and ethnomusicologist Claude Vivier (1948 – 1983); British composer Thomas Adès (1971 – ) made extensive use of the ondes Martenot in his opera, The Exterminating Angel (2016) stating that the ondes Martenot could be considered the voice of the exterminating angel.
Today, people are most likely to encounter l’onde Martenot in the sound tracks of science fiction and horror films. It has also been used by: Musicologist and rare instrument musician Thomas Bloch (1962 – ) who also uses other instruments such as the glass harmonica, and cristal baschet (both to be topics of future weblog posts); Daft Punk, formed in 1993 in Paris by Thomas Bangalter (1975 – ) and Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo (1974 – ), Damon Albarn (1968 – ) of Blur and Jonny Greenwood (1971 – ) of Radiohead, who described it as “a very accurate theremin that you have far more control of … When it’s played well, you can really emulate the voice.”
Douglas Martin (? – ) in 2001 described its sound as a haunting wail. David McNamee (? – ) in 2009, said the ondes Martenot can be as soothing and moving as a string quartet, but nerve-jangling when gleefully abused.
The English musicologist, composer and inventor of experimental musical instruments Hugh Davies (1943 – 2005). estimated that more than 1 000 works had been composed for the ondes. Jeanne Loriod estimated that there were 15 concertos and 300 pieces of chamber music. The instrument was used in French theatres such as the Comédie-Française, the Théâtre National Populaire and the Folies-Bergère.
Thomas Adès’s opera The Exterminating Angel makes extensive use of the Ondes Martenot, which Adès says “could be considered the voice of the exterminating angel”.
The Guardian described Jonny Greenwood of the English rock band Radiohead as a champion of the ondes Martenot. He first used it on Radiohead’s 2000 album Kid A, and it appears in Radiohead songs including The National Anthem, How to Disappear Completely and Where I End and You Begin.
The ondist Thomas Bloch toured in Tom Waits and Robert Wilson’s show The Black Rider (2004–06)[36] and in Damon Albarn’s opera “Monkey: Journey to the West” (2007–2013).[37] Bloch performed ondes Martenot on the 2009 Richard Hawley album Truelove’s Gutter and the 2013 Daft Punk album Random Access Memories.[13] In 2020, the French composer Christine Ott released Chimères (pour Ondes Martenot), an avant-garde album using only the ondes Martenot.[38]
Film and television
The first uses of electronic music in film was probably in 1934, when Arthur Honegger (1892 – 1955) used an ondes Martenot in his soundtrack for the 1932 French animated film L’Idée = The Idea, by Austro-Hungarian filmmaker Berthold Bartosch (1893-1968). In 1936 Adolphe Borchard (1882–1967) used an ondes Martenot in Sacha Guitry’s (1885-1957) Le roman d’un tricheur = Confessions of a Cheat. The instrument was, played by Martenot’s sister, Ginette. It was used by composer Brian Easdale in the ballet music for The Red Shoes.[40][better source needed] French composer Maurice Jarre introduced the ondes Martenot to American cinema in his score for Lawrence of Arabia (1962).[41] Composer Harry Lubin created cues for The Loretta Young Show, One Step Beyond and The Outer Limits featured the instrument, as did the first-season Lost in Space (1965) theme by John Williams. The English composer Richard Rodney Bennett used it for scores for films including Billion Dollar Brain (1967) and Secret Ceremony (1968).[42] Elmer Bernstein learned about the ondes Martenot through Bennet, and used it in scores for films including Heavy Metal,[43] Ghostbusters,[44][45] The Black Cauldron,[45] Legal Eagles, The Good Son, and My Left Foot.[45]
Composer Danny Elfman used the instrument in the soundtrack to the comedy science fiction film Mars Attacks!: he had originally intended to use a theremin, but was unable to find a musician who could play one.[46]
Director Lucille Hadžihalilović decided to use the instrument in her film Evolution (2015) as it “brings a certain melancholy, almost a human voice, and it instantly creates a particular atmosphere”.[47] Other film scores that use the ondes Martenot include A Passage to India, Amelie, Bodysong,[2] There Will Be Blood (2007), Hugo (2011)[48] and Manta Ray.[49]
The ondes Martenot is the subject of the 2013 Quebec documentary Wavemakers.[50] It is used in a performance of Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time in an episode from the third season of the Amazon series Mozart in the Jungle, where a musician plays the ondes Martenot to inmates on Rikers Island.[51][52]
The British composer, arranger and conductor Barry Gray (1908–1984) studied the instrument with Martenot in Paris, and used it in his soundtracks for 1960s films including Dr Who and the Daleks (1965) and Doppelgänger (1969) as well as his scores for English television and film producer, director, writer and occasional voice artist Gerry Anderson’s (1929 – 2012) TV series. One of Gray’s instruments (a model 6 from 1969) was inherited and restored by film composer François Evans (1965 – ) who used it in Edgar Wright’s (1974 – ) first feature film, A Fistful of Fingers (1995). , and occasionally records with this instrument in his soundtracks. Evans studied ondes Martenot under Pascale Rousse-Lacordaire (? – ), who was a student of Maurice Martenot and Jeanne Loriod.
The ondes Martenot is sometimes claimed to have been used in the original Star Trek theme; the part was in fact performed by a singer.[2] Legacy
In 2001, the New York Times described the ondes, along with other early electronic instruments such as the theremin, teleharmonium, trautonium, and orgatron, as part of a “futuristic electric music movement that never went remotely as far as its pioneers dreamed … proponents of the new wired music delighted in making previously unimaginable noises”. The French classical musician Thomas Bloch said: “The ondes martenot is probably the most musical of all electric instruments … Martenot was not only interested in sounds. He wanted to use electricity to increase and control the expression, the musicality. Everything is made by the musician in real time, including the control of the vibrato, the intensity, and the attack. It is an important step in our electronic instrument lineage.”
Journalist Alex Ross (1968 – ) estimates that fewer than 100 people have mastered the ondes Martenot. Mark Singer (1950 – ) wrote in 1997 for The Wire that it would likely remain obscure: “The fact is that any instrument with no institutional grounding of second- and third-raters, no spectral army of amateurs, will wither and vanish: how can it not? Specialist virtuosos may arrive to tackle the one-off novelty … but there’s no meaningful level of entry at the ground floor, and, what’s worse, no fallback possibility of rank careerism if things don’t turn out.”
One of the quirks/ features of ondes Martenot’s electronics is its use of a powder to transfers electric currents. Martenot would mix in different quantities according to musicians’ specifications; the precise proportions are unknown. Attempts to construct new ondes Martenot models using Martenot’s original specifications have had variable results.
Because of the inherent fragility of l’ondes Martenot, there have been attempts to construct more robust functional equivalents.
In 2000, Jonny Greenwood commissioned Analogue Systems, a synthesizer manufacturer, to develop a replica, because he was nervous about damaging his instrument on tour. This replica, called the French Connection, imitates the ondes Martenot’s control mechanism, but does not generate sound directly. Instead, it controls an external oscillator.
David Kean (? – ) is a musician, composer and audio engineer. In 1995 he founded Audities Studios in Seattle. In 1996 he relocated to Los Angeles. In early 2000 he relocated to Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He collects electronic instruments and owns the Mellotron Company. In 2000 he created an improved replica version of l’ondes Martenot.
Jean-Loup Dierstein (? – ) maintained an Ondes Martenot at the Conservatoire de Paris from 2006. This sometimes required him to manufacture new parts to replace the defective and obsolete parts. Thus, it was able to restore fully unusable instruments. In 2011 he decided to manufacture his own variant. These reproduction instruments can be bought for about € 12 000. In 2012, the Canadian company Therevox began selling a synthesizer with an interface based on the ondes Martenot pitch ring and intensity key. In 2017, the Japanese company Asaden manufactured 100 Ondomo instruments, a portable version of the ondes Martenot.
Perhaps the best introduction to ondes Martenot is a short (3m51s) video of Thomas Block, playing improvisations at Fisher Lane studios, in 2010-12.
Notes
I have previously mention ondes Martenot, in a weblog post about the Therevox, published 2022-10-08.
Content from several Wikipedia articles, and other sources, have been reproduced here, without any form of acknowledgement! These weblog posts are not intended to be cited in academic articles. Hopefully, most of the content is correct, but that is not guaranteed. At breakfast on 2025-01-26, I was reminded of this by Trish, who handed me an article about the fallibility of Wikipedia. A Norwegian author had corrected some factual mistakes in a Wikipedia biography about him. The next day he received a life-time editing ban from Wikipedia. The perpetrator of the incorrect information had reported him for vandalism. For example, I find it increasingly difficult to find correct birth and even death years. For some reason, people are reluctant to provide this information. I find these dates are important, because circumstances change. Someone born in Europe in, say. 1935, will have a very different experience of life in their early years, than that of someone born in North America in 2005.
I have been an encyclopedia enthusiast since 1958, when our neighbours, the Sathers acquired a set of World Book encyclopedias. We acquired our set soon afterwards. In my childhood, I used to take a volume off to bed to read. Then, twenty years later in 1978, Jane Kupfer and Mychael Gleeson gave us a copy of the single volume Random House Encyclopedia on our wedding day. It still has a prominent place on our bookshelf, but in 2025, it has effectively been replaced by Wikipedia.
This is mentioned because Wikipedia articles vary in quality, especially their clarity and ability to inform. Thus, when I wanted to incorporate some basic insights into signed languages in this weblog post, I read what Wikipedia had to say about languages, then had to simplify much of the content to make it intelligible,
Some language insights
Language is a broad term for a linguistic configuration allowing people to communicate. It employs a system of symbols used uniformly by people to communicate intelligibly with each other. Language is distinct from dialect, jargon and vernacular. It refers to a linguistic configurations of vocabulary = a stock of words, syntax = rules and patterns by which sentences and phrases are formed, phonology = distribution and patterning of speech sounds in a language and of the tacit rules governing pronunciation. Signed languages lack phonology.
Dialect is applied to certain forms or varieties of a language, often those that communities or special groups retain even after a standard has been established. They are often geographic.
I would describe my own dialect as Cascadian, although other British Columbians would describe it as West Coast, essentially identical to the Pacific Northwest dialect found in Washington and Oregon states, and with minimal differences to the California dialect found, well, in California. This is totally unsurprising given the history of the area, and American immigration, especially from California after the California Gold Rush.
Some dialects appeal more to me than others. Take for example, Toni Basil, from Los Vegas. Her dialect, on Mickey (1981) always represents my ideal English language dialect, even better than my own. Yes, I am sure that I am not influenced by her Los Vegas High School cheerleader head uniform.
Note: The California goldrush had both positive and negative effects. On the plus side, the sudden influx of gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy; the sudden population increase allowed California to become a state in the Compromise of 1850. The gold rush had severe effects on Native Californians and accelerated the Native American population’s decline from disease, starvation, and the California genocide.
I have noticed, but never commented on, differences between my dialect and that of my relatives in Essex County, Ontario and Detroit, Michigan. I would refer to their speech as a Great Lakes dialect. I can understand them perfectly, but there are some differences. I cannot articulate those differences before I hear them, but I notice them as they are being uttered. Undoubtedly, these same relatives will have a similar reaction to my speech.
Jargon is an artificial linguistic configuration often used by a particular occupational group for communication about occupational matters. Chinook jargon is often used as an example. It originating as a pidgin trade language in the Pacific Northwest. It spread during the 19th century from the lower Columbia River, first to other areas in modern Oregon and Washington, then to British Columbia and parts of Alaska, Northern California, Idaho and Montana.
A pidgin = a grammatically simplified means of communication that develops between two or more groups of people that do not have a language in common: typically, its vocabulary and grammar are limited and often drawn from several languages. A creole language = a stable natural language that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a pidgin), and then from that expanding into a fully developed language with native speakers, all within a short period.
Vernacular refers to ordinary informal speech in a given language. It is simultaneously in accord with and, in relatively small ways, distinguished from the standard language in syntax, vocabulary, usage and pronunciation. It is used by persons indigenous to a certain community, large or small.
Signed languages
Signed languages are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning, instead of spoken words. They use manual articulation in combination with non-manual markers to express thought. Signed languages are fully developed natural languages with their own grammar = language rules, and lexicon = vocabulary.
Note: Signed languages are not universal and are usually not mutually intelligible. There are similarities among different sign languages.
Linguists consider both spoken and signed communication to be types of natural language. Both emerged through an abstract, protracted aging process and evolved over time without meticulous planning. There is substantial overlap between the neural substrates of signed and spoken language processing, despite obvious differences in modality = form of sensation, here visual rather than through sound.
Interpreters
From about 1982 to 2008 (26 years) I worked with interpreters, on an almost daily basis. The interpreters I used were specially designed computer programs that translated code from a programming language into a machine code, that various types of computers could understand. In some respects these are similar to, but in other respects different from, people who interpret between two human languages.
Deaf people often need an interpreter, for basic tasks. A human or computer-based interpreter, can help deaf people communicate, but they are seldom available. So people end up writing messages, or using children that can hear to interpret. Yes, many deaf people have to rely on writing with a pen on pieces of paper, or messaging with smart phones to communicate.
I don’t understand why this should be the case. Apple’s Siri spun out from the Stanford Research Institute’s Artificial Intelligence Center and is an offshoot of the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s (DARPA)-funded CALO project. SRI International used the NABC Framework to define the value proposition for Siri. It was co-founded by Norwegian Dag Kittlaus (1967 – ), Tom Gruber (1959 – ), and Adam Cheyer (1966 – ). Kittlaus named Siri after a co-worker in Norway; the name is a short form of the name Sigrid, from Old Norse Sigríðr, composed of the elements sigr “victory” and fríðr “beautiful”.
Adam Munder (1976 – ), who presented much of the information here in a TED talk, works as a software engineer in his daily life. He uses two highly qualified interpreters to work with others who have the same degrees, educational background, job responsibilities to solve engineering problems in a competitive environment. His daily collaborations, meetings and presentations rely on his interpreters. He is thankful that his employer ensures access to the same information that his hearing enabled colleagues do.
This is not true for many deaf people throughout the world. Interpreters are expensive and scarce. Adam lives in Arizona, a state with a population of about 7.5 million people in 2024. Of these, more than 1.1 million individuals have a hearing loss. That is about 15% of the population. There are only about 400 licensed interpreters. That is a ratio of 2750 / 1. Americans work up to about 2 000 hours a year. It it were equally divided, that would be about 0.75 hours per deaf person per year.
That means there is a scarcity of tools available, and few options. Until now.
There are about 150 different signed languages throughout the world. One of them, originally called Gestuno, now International Sign, is international in its orientation. It intends to bridge the gap between member of communities who don’t hear, but use different signed languages.
American Sign Language.
American Sign Language (ASL) is the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expressed by employing both manual and nonmanual features. It is often the basis for creoles used in many countries around the world, is widely learned as a second language, so that it can serve as a common language. ASL is closely related to French Sign Language (LSF).
ASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf (ASD) in Hartford, Connecticut. Since then, ASL use has been propagated widely by schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations. User estimates vary from 250 000 to 500 000 persons, including children of deaf adults (CODA) and other hearing individuals.
Adam Munder, with others, is building a platform called OmniBridge. Its purpose is to join the deaf world and the hearing world, so that the details and nuances that make people human can be found in conversations.
He says that the OmniBridge team is using the power of AI to analyze thousands of signs in ASL. At one level, the goal seems to be to allow people to engage in conversations, regardless of their language. It is bringing humanity back into conversations, fusing worlds without forcing people to adapt to one other. While there are thousands of ASL signs (which may seem small) ASL is complex, filled with slight nuance and changes in body language. These can change the meaning of a sign from big to enormous.
The machines used to translate ASL to English, and vice versa are AI PCs, These are able to run ASL models locally, without relying on the internet, which dramatically increases accessibility. It is claimed that AI is changing the world. I am not convinced, although I can understand that people would prefer to have the technology they use in their devices, rather than needing an internet connection to communicate. The value of OmniBridge team is that it is using computing power to humanize, include and to level the playing field. It is an attempt to unite two languages, signed and spoken, into one seamless conversation. Let us hope that it does not become a mechanism to transfer wealth from the relatively oppressed, to those with wealth.
Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, as they appear on a Vancouver Public Library plaque outside the Metro Theatre in Marpole, Vancouver.
British born playwright Raymond Hull (1919 – 1986) and Vancouver born hierarchiologist Laurence Peter (1919 – 1990) met in a theatre lobby during an intermission, in the early 1960s. They agreed that they were watching an atrocious production.
Discussing the reasons for this theatrical disaster, Peter told Hull that employees rise to their level of incompetence. Workers keep getting promoted until they stop performing well. Later, the two men collaborated on their 1969 best-seller, The Peter Principle: Why Things Always Go Wrong, which focused on this key insight. The book was rejected by more than a dozen publishers before being accepted, and becoming a best-seller.
Many TV mockumentaries/ sitcoms throughout the world have been called The Office, including a BBC production 2001-3, followed by an NBC one 2005 – 2013. These series were directly inspired by The Peter Principle, and showed incompetent people in action. The same is true of the comic strip Dilbert, written and illustrated by Scott Adams (1957 – ) since 1989. Adams gained inspiration from his banking career at Crocker National Bank in San Francisco between 1979 and 1986.
The Peter Principle describes organizational dysfunction. Companies frequently have the wrong person in the wrong place. Yet, Peter was uncertain about the incompetent people at the top. In a 1984 television interview on CBC Television with Carole Taylor (1945 – ), he admitted.”I’m never sure whether our world is run by idiots who are sincere or wise guys who are putting us on.”
Taylor was probably an appropriate interviewer. She has had a dubious career. She was Miss Toronto 1964; an independent member of Vancouver City Council from 1986 to 1990; Chair of the Vancouver Board of Trade from 2001 to 2002; Chair of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) from 2001 until 2005; British Columbia’s Minister of Finance from 2005 until 2008; Chancellor of Simon Fraser University (in Burnaby, British Columbia) from 2011 until 2014. From my perspective, her most notable achievement was the introduction of the first carbon tax in North America, introduced in 2008. It was based on Sweden’s carbon tax, that successfully reduced carbon dioxide emissions from transport by 11%.
Most people think The Peter Principle was written as satire. Yet, even satire can contain truths. Researchers have undertaken studies based on Peter and Hull’s treatise, and then written reports about remedial actions that can prevent workers from rising to their level of incompetence.
A 2009 study by Italian researchers offered a radical approach to the Peter Principle problem. It found that companies may be better served by leaving things to chance and promoting people at random.
A 2018 study looked at data from more than 50 000 sales workers at 214 firms and “found evidence consistent with the ‘Peter Principle.'” It found organizations were more likely to promote top sales staff into managerial positions even if the most productive worker wasn’t necessarily the best candidate.
Some organizations counter the Peter Principle through a dual track approach that allows for high performers to advance their careers = get income increases and/or fancy job titles, without necessarily having to climb the corporate ladder.
Some organizations have tried to tackle the Peter Principle problem by focusing less on a worker’s past performance and more on their potential. They use what’s called the nine-box method to evaluate prospective leaders, using a three-by-three grid that weighs an employee’s accomplishments and their future potential. “Women were actually getting slightly higher performance ratings within the nine-box system, but they were getting sharply lower potential ratings. So it seems like potential is something very difficult to forecast, but it’s an area where various biases can sneak in.”
Peter’s career
Peter worked as a teacher in Vancouver between 1941 and 1965, before becoming an education professor at the University of British Columbia. In 1966, Peter moved to California, where he became an Associate Professor of Education, Director of the Evelyn Frieden Centre for Prescriptive Teaching, and Coordinator of Programs for Emotionally Disturbed Children at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles.
Peter also wrote: The Peter Prescription: How to Make Things Go Right (1972), The Peter Plan: A Proposal for Survival (1976), Peter’s Quotations: Ideas for Our Times (1977), and more.
He wrote several books aimed at teachers: Prescriptive Teaching (1965); Competencies for Teaching (1975) in four volumes: 1 = Individual Instruction, 2 = Classroom Instruction, 3 = Theraputic Instruction, 4 = Teacher Education.
His insights into teaching are expressed even on the opening page of The Peter Principle, where he writes that he learned early in his career as an educator that “a fair number of teachers, school principals, and superintendents appeared to be unaware of their professional responsibilities, and incompetent in executing their duties.”
Hull’s Career
Hull was born in Shaftesbury, Dorset, England. He emigrated to Vancouver at the end of World War II, and worked as a waiter, janitor and civil servant. In 1949 he studied creative writing at the University of British Columbia and discovering he had an aptitude for it. After graduation, he eventually began writing television screenplays for the CBC. He later wrote for the stage and, in time, formed The Gastown Players.
His literary output included plays: The Drunkard (1967); Wedded to a Villain (1967); Son of the Drunkard = The Drunkard’s Revenge (1982). Other works were: Profitable Playwriting (1968); How To Get What You Want (1969); Writing for Money in Canada (1969); Effective Public Speaking (1971); Gastown’s Gassy Jack (1971) (co-authored with Olga Ruskin (nee Bruchovsky, 1931 – 2010); How to Write a Play (1983). in addition to co-authoring The Peter Principle (1969), with Laurence Peter.
Hull and Peter’s names lives on
In 2006 Vancouver Public Library installed 26 literary plaques. One of these was outside the Metro Theatre, 1370 S.W. Marine Drive, which was the location where Peter and Hull met. It reads:
“In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.”
From The Peter Principle: Why Things Always Go Wrong
One of the most famous non-fiction books written in British Columbia, The Peter Principle (1969), was co-authored by Raymond Hull and Laurence J. Peter after the pair met as strangers while attending an amateur production at the Metro Theatre. In the lobby, during intermission, Hull mentioned the production was a failure. Laurence J. Peter, an Education professor at UBC, suggested to Hull that people invariably rise to their level of incompetence. In their international bestseller that resulted, The Peter Principle, Peter described his theme as “hierarchiology,” a term now commonly used when analyzing systems in human society. Hull described the content as, “the tragi-comic truth about incompetence, its causes and its cure.” Dr. Laurence J. Peter, who was born in Vancouver and worked for the Vancouver school system from 1941 to 1965, left B.C. and worked in the Education faculty of the University of Southern California. He wrote 11 more books and died in 1990. Raymond Hull was a writer and also an actor and playwright. He died in 1985, bequeathing most of his royalties from six plays and 18 books to the Canadian Authors Association, and most of the rest of his estate, approximately $100,000, was given to the Vancouver Public Library.
[end of inscription on plaque]
Raymond Hull Quotations:
All marriages are happy. It’s the living together afterward that causes all the trouble.
He who trims himself to suit everyone will soon whittle himself away.
The applause of a single human being is of great consequence.
Laurence Peter Quotations:
The noblest of all dogs is the hot dog; it feeds the hand that bites it.
A man doesn’t know what he knows until he knows what he doesn’t know.
Work is accomplished by those employees who have not yet reached their level of incompetence.
The problem with temptation is that you may not get another chance.
Every girl should use what Mother Nature gave her before Father Time takes it away.
An economist is an expert who will know tomorrow why the things he predicted yesterday didn’t happen today.
The reason crime doesn’t pay is that when it does, it is called a more respectable name.
Competence, like truth, beauty, and contact lenses, is in the eye of the beholder.
The purpose of my books is not to proclaim that I know all the answers, or plan to save the world; but by writing these stories, the idea is to turn people on to thinking in terms of solutions, rather than in terms of escalating problems.
Peter was fond of quoting the wisdom of American humourist James Boren (1925 – 2010): When in charge, ponder. When in trouble, delegate. And when in doubt, mumble. Boren founded the International Association of Professional Bureaucrats and, in 1992, was the official candidate for President of the United States, for the Apathy Party of America, with his campaign slogan: I have what it takes to take what you’ve got. He lost to Bill Clinton.
Homogenized Milk
Sometimes Peter explains basic concepts using analogies: “the cream that rises to the top turns sour.” If this is still too difficult, he paraphrases it: ‘The cream rises until it sours.’ Unfortunately, many of the people he was trying to explain this to, have probably drunk homogenized milk all of their lives, and have no understanding of how milk and cream start off as separate fractions.
Peter probably had no difficulty explaining his concepts to members his own generation, people who had grown up with standard milk who intuitively knew that cream is lighter than milk. In dealing with younger people there are experiential gaps, often called generation gaps. Bridging these gaps can be difficult.
Auguste Gaulin (1857 – 1922) invented an emulsifying machine, he called a homogenizer. Its three piston pump forced milk through a narrow tube under pressure. This action broke fat globules into smaller sizes to prevent separation and rising. The machine was patented in 1899, but homogenization did not become popular with the general public until the 1920s, when large quantities of homogenized milk were purchased and people began to notice the quality difference.
In North America, the use of homogenized milk began at The Torrington Creamery, Torrington, Connecticut in 1919, but did not spread. By 1927, The Laurentian Dairy, in Ottawa Ontario, started to produce homogenized milk. By 1932, milk plants in many Ontario cities and towns offered homogenized milk for sale. In the United States, enthusiasm for the product was generated by William McDonald, Flint, Michigan, in 1932, who introduced homogenized milk there. Through unique experiments and demonstrations involving regurgitation studies, attention of the public was drawn to homogenized milk. Sales by the McDonald Dairy Company, in the midst of the economic depression, stimulated much interest throughout the United States.
Fountain, found by R. Mutt = Marcel Duchamp (1887 – 1968) photograph by Alfred Stieglitz (1864 – 1946) at the 291 (Art Gallery) following the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit, with entry tag visible. The backdrop is The Warriors by Marsden Hartley (1877 – 1943).
Industrial art began as the use of mechanical devices to create artworks. As such it is also known as mechanical art. I use it in a slightly different context to refer to industrially made objects that have an attractive appearance. Some people may enjoy watching this history of industrial design, to provide a conventional story of how it evolved.
For me, the most enlightening book about industrialism has been written by Terje Tvedt (1951 -) a professor of geography at the University of Bergen, Historiens Hjul og Vannets Makt: Da England og Europa Vant og Kina og Asia Tapte (2023). This could be translated as: The Wheel of History and the Power of Water: When England and Europe Won and China and Asia Lost. Tvedt has also written a book in Norwegian prior to that, Verdens historie: med fortiden som speil (2020), that I translate as World History: with the past as a mirror, which could have been published in English as Water and Society: Changing Perceptions of Societal and Historical Development (2021). I have not seen this English book, so there is some uncertainty.
In the 2023 book, the most important source of power was water, using a water wheel. England was able to develop this because it had stable rainfall, along with a relatively flat geography. These contributed to the use of canals to distribute industrially produced products. Later, steam became an increasingly important source of power. Now, it is electricity.
One starting point for industrial art is the Dada movement. Dada was an early 20th century art movement, arguably first at the Cabaret Voltaire in 1916 in Zürich, Switzerland, founded by Hugo Ball (1886 – 1927) and Emmy Hennings (1885 – 1948). Dada also emerged at about the same time in Berlin and New York, but later in Paris. It flourished until the mid 1920s.
Dada was primarily a reaction to the first World War, involving artists rejecting the aesthetics of modern capitalism. Instead they incorporated nonsense, irrationality and protest into their works. Performance art, was especially important, but gradually it incorporated visual, literary and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing and sculpture. There was a strong dislike of violence, war, nationalism and party politics.
There is a lot of speculation, but no consensus, on the origin of the name Dada. An unlikely story is that Richard Huelsenbeck (1892 – 1974) slid a paper knife randomly into a dictionary, where it landed on dada (French) = hobby horse.
Other unconventional art schools emerged at about the same time: Marcel Duchamp (1887 – 1968) around 1913 has been described as dada, avant-garde and post-impressionist. I attribute his work, Fountain (1917), photographed by Alfred Stieglitz (1864 – 1946), as one of the first pieces of industrial production, to be labelled a work of art.
Dada is important for its rejection of the correlation between words and their meaning. In much the same way, industrial art rejected the correlation of a work’s origin (as a utilitarian object) and its resurrection as a work of art.
Not all Dada movement members worked with industrial art, those who approached in other ways include: Jean Arp (1886 – 1966) known as a sculptor, painter and poet; Johannes Baader (1875 – 1955), an architect and metalworker, known as the Dada crowbar; Max Ernst (1891 – 1976), especially for frottage = pencil rubbings of textured objects and relief surfaces to create images; Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven née Else Hildegard Plötz (1874 – 1927), especially for her anti-patriarchal activism; George Grosz, his de-Germanized name, born Georg Ehrenfried Groß (1893 – 1959), especially for his painting Eclipse of the Sun (1926), depicting headless government ministers who cannot think for themselves, but obey the commands of the capitalists and the military; Raoul Hausmann (1886 – 1971), who regarded destruction as an act of creation; John Heartfield born Helmut Herzfelt (1891 – 1968) who pioneered the use of photomontages, especially for making anti-Nazi and anti-fascist statements; Hannah Höch (1889 – 1978), especially known for co-inventing photo-montages, and for her dismantling of the fable of the New Woman: energetic, professional, androgynous, ready to take her place as man’s equal; Francis Picabia (1879–1953) avant-garde painter, writer, filmmaker, magazine publisher, poet and typographist; Man Ray = Emmanuel Radnitzky (1890 – 1976) an American in Paris, known for his photographs, especially photograms that he called rayograms = photographic images made without a camera by placing objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material such as photographic paper and then exposing it to light; Hans Richter (1888 – 1976) painter, graphic artist, film producer and author of the book Dadaism (1965) about its history; Kurt Schwitters (1887 – 1948) especially noted for working as a draftsperson that influenced his later work, inspiring him to depict machines as metaphors of human activity; Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889 – 1943) painter, sculptor, textile designer, furniture and interior designer, architect, and dancer;Tristan Tzara (1896–1963) essayist, performance artist, journalist, playwright, literary and art critic, composer and film director; and Beatrice Wood (1893 – 1998) ceramicist an sculptor.
The key to industrial art is the process of creating new forms by working with industrial materials, those that are produced at mass scale for everyday use. Many are made of metal, such as bolts and pipes. Wood is more problematic, because it is closer to nature. Cardboard, however, is one or two steps further away. Many claim that crap materials are even better, because they have completed their use as an industrial material and are freed to become an art form.
Charles Harrison Townsend (1851 – 1928) described industrial art as the use of materials and objects combined together in a way that creates new meaning. Not everyone appreciates this approach. Nikolaus Pevsner (1902 – 1983) in Pioneers of Modern Design (1949) referred to Townsend as reckless. Alastair Service (1933 – ) in Edwardian Architecture (1977) called Townsend a rogue architect.
Although it is difficult to define, many people have tried to categorize and define industrial art. In 1947, Larry Lankton created the first definition of industrial art when he referred to it as “an expression of the machine age.” While there are many different ways to interpret the term industrial art, it is generally agreed upon that it tends to incorporate aspects of modernism, specifically cubism and constructivism. According to wikipedia, in cubism, subjects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form. Instead of depicting objects from a single perspective, the artist depicts the subject from multiple perspectives to represent the subject in a greater context. Similarly, constructivism was an early twentieth-century art movement founded in 1915 by Vladimir Tatlin (1885 – 1953) and Alexander Rodchenko (1891 – 1956) that is abstract and austere. Constructivist art aimed to reflect modern industrial society and urban space by rejecting decorative stylization, in favour of the industrial assemblage of materials. Constructivists were in favour of art for propaganda and social purposes. They were associated with Soviet socialism, the Bolsheviks and the Russian avant-garde.
For some time after its beginning, industrial art remained mostly an underground movement which encompassed various forms and styles from all over the world. In 1952, the Museum of Modern Art featured many works from this movement in a show called “Machine Art.” This exhibition moved from New York City to Los Angeles and San Francisco before finally closing in 1953.
Artists began using industrial materials for their work as early as the late 1800s with artists such as Marcel Duchamp who used glass as part of his ready-mades.
Today, industrial art can refer to two separate things. First, it can refer to any form of visual art that is made with found objects rather than manufactured ones. This umbrella term was coined by William Morris (1834 – 1896), for a wide variety of forms of modern art. It is closely associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement because both movements were heavily influenced by medieval craft guilds.
Some people site the major difference between industrial art and traditional fine art is the former’s focus on utilitarian products. Industrial artists work in a wide variety of media including ceramics, glass, leather, metals and textiles. Their works can be large sometimes even monumental in scale.
Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848 – 1933) is often cited as an inspiration for the movement, especially his use of stained glass in lamps, vases and windows. His designs were typically functional, yet beautiful.
Industrial art was a result of industrialization and the changes it brought. Many people, especially factory workers were profoundly unhappy with their situation. This forced artists to think about new ways to represent the world.
Industrial art was created by both amateur and professional artists. One of the first industrial art objects was designed was the door handle. These often used human, animal and plant elements in their design.
Found (or repurposed) objects were those that had been transformed from their original function into something else, preferably with an artistic element. Here, the artwork differed more in terms of its use of materials, rather than by its structure. Discarded materials were especially useful. Some cited examples include arranging tin cans in geometric patterns and repainting old tools/ machines with bright colors.
At some point, people interested in industrial art will be encouraged to reflect on the relationship between 1) the arts and crafts movement, 2) art nouveau/ jugendstil and 3) art that is created to be used in industrial settings. The focus is on objects that are to be seen by the public, usually inside a factory or store. It also includes graphics created for use as advertising and packaging. This type of art grew out of the Arts and Crafts movement of the 19th century, which was an effort to bring beauty into manufacturing. Industrial design, as an attempt to create beautiful things for use in industry, took off after World War I when many people were seeking a substitute for the ornate designs of Art Nouveau. The style became especially popular in America during the 1920s due to two trends: the rise in popularity of machines, and an emphasis on modernism.
A second perspective on industrial art = factory art = machine art, is a form of modern art that utilizes industrial materials and processes. Here, the term industrial art was coined in 1912 by the critic and artist Elie Nadelman (1882 – 1946), a sculptor and collector of folk art, used the term to describe some works by Alexander Archipenko (1887 – 1964).
Anno 2025, Industrial art is not a term that is used. Instead, the focus is on industrial design creating products that people want and, sometimes even need. It’s not just about making an object look good. It has to be easy to use, safe for the environment, affordable and durable.
Treat this post as a manuscript for a play, with a Prologue and an Epilogue. At one time it was divided into three acts, but the divisions were messy, so it has reverted to a play with an indeterminate number of acts.
Characters (in alphabetical order). Yes, some of the characters are more important than others, and one has mostly been eliminated from the play. The characters are referred to by their first names, to introduce some intimacy to them. I am not certain this is how people in the 19th century treated each other. My 20th century mother said that her mother, Jane Andison née Briggs (1880 – 1972), referred to some of her women friends by Mrs, followed by a married surname. In Norway, everybody is on a first name basis with everybody. Even the Prime Minister Jonas Gahr Støre (1960 – ) is referred to as Jonas. Before him we had Erna (Solberg, 1961 – ). Her personal, but political website is erna.no .
Anne = Julia Sarah Anne Cobden-Sanderson née Cobden (1853 – 1926), a socialist, suffragette and vegetarian. She provided the money (£ 1 600) to start Doves Press.
Bill = William Morris (1834 – 1896), a textile designer, poet, artist, writer and socialist activist, married Jane in 1859.
Ed = Edward Philip Prince (1846 – 1923) an engraver and punchcutter. Wikipedia tells us: Punchcutting is a craft used in traditional typography to cut letter punches in steel as the first stage of making metal type. Steel punches in the shape of the letter would be used to stamp matrices into copper, which were locked into a mould shape to cast type. Cutting punches and casting type was the first step of traditional typesetting. The cutting of letter punches was a highly skilled craft requiring much patience and practice.
Ed2 = Edward Burne-Jones (1833 – 1898), a frequent illustrator of Kelmscott books, based many of his drawings for the wood engravings on his own previous paintings. He valued these works for their decorative value over their illustrative properties, and reviewed them by looking at them upside-down.
Emery = Emery Walker (1851 – 1933), an engraver, photographer and printer, active in many Arts & Crafts organizations including the Art Workers Guild, the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. He was also the most experienced person in this story, when it comes to printing.
Jane = Jane Morris née Burden (1839 – 1914) an embroiderer and artists’ model/ muse. She allegedly embodied the Pre-Raphaelite ideal of beauty, and in addition to her husband, was a model/ muse for Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828 – 1882). She suggested that Tom take up the art of book binding.
John =John Carruthers (1836 – 1914), a railway/ railroad engineer and economic theorist from a Scottish literary family in Inverness, Scotland. He learned how to construct railways in Canada, then applied that art in USA, Russia, Mauritius and Egypt before being recruited by Julius Vogel, Premier of New Zealand, for the great Public Works policy of the 1870s which emphasized railway construction and immigration. John was made Engineer-in-Chief of the new Public Works Department, responsible for railway construction throughout New Zealand.
Tom = Thomas James Sanderson (1840 – 1922), an unemployed barrister, married Anne in 1882. They both took the surname Cobden-Sanderson.
Prologue
Where to begin writing about life as a play? Perhaps with a set/ stage, knowing when people will make their entrances and exits. The details can be filled in later. Sometimes, on a stage there is something visible, larger than life, a distraction that the actors focus upon. They hope future audiences will focus upon it too, when the dialogue gets boring, as each life unfolds. The actors hope this focus will not just change, but improve, with every act.
It is reckless when two people enter into a relationship with each other. Yet, it is done every day. Often it is called marriage where the participants are so consumed with love – a euphemism for sex – that they forget to scrutinize the contract papers, until it is too late. The participation of a third person often results in folly. In business matters this might be a better course of action, because the result of a disagreement, will not be painful head-bashing, but a 2-1 decision resulting in a majority and a minority. In the emotional life of people in the 21st century, this involves separation – divorce – remarriage, or perhaps even a life free of marital constraints.
Kelmscott
Kelmscott Manor is a Cotswold stone house, built about 1570, with a distinctive architecture and craftsmanship, integrated with its setting. In 1871, Bill bought it as a rural retreat, then used the same name for his London town house when he bought it in 1879. He then gave the same name to his printing venture when it was started in 1891.
Kelmscott Manor Photo: Boerkevitz, 2006-08-01Kelmscott House, previously known as The Retreat, originally owned by Francis Ronalds (1788 – 1873) then by George MacDonald (1824 –1905) who wrote At the Back of the North Wind (1871) and The Princess and the Goblin (1873), while living there. Bill and Anne lived there from 1878 to 1896. Photo: Bernard Burns, 2013-09-30.
In the late 1870s, Emery and Bill became friends. Both were socialists and lived near each other. Emery’s printing expertise and collection of 16th-century typefaces inspired Bill and Emery to become business partners, creating a printing business in 1891. It published 53 books in 66 volumes between its founding and 1898.
Most of the books published were unillustrated octavos, referring to the page size, from 5 by 8 inches to 6 by 9.5 inches (about 12.5 to 15 cm by 20 to 25 cm), of a book composed of printer’s sheets folded into 8 leaves, making 16 pages. Old-style types were used, with the type printed closer to the spine than the outside edge. This followed the custom of 15th-century printing. A hand press allowed the company to use wood-engraved initials and borders, and to produce a blacker type. The use of dampened handmade paper, creating indentations in the page. These indentations were an important part of the book’s design. Initially, books were sold untrimmed and unbound, assuming that buyers would rebind them. The press only started trimming pages after publishing Biblia innocentium in 1896.
For collectors, several copies of books were printed on vellum = animal skins/ membranes. Compared to paper, this is difficult to print on. Vellum is not parchment. Both use animal skins that have been de-greased and treated for use either in writing or printing or in binding. Neither parchment nor vellum is tanned, so they are not leather. Vellum is an inferior product, manufactured from the entire skin of the animal. It is not split. For this, Bill started using a thick, dark ink. The pressmen had difficulty working with it, so Bill went back to the ink he had used previously. Because of staining he then used a softer ink, that did not dry very quickly. Bill used red ink for titles and shoulder-notes. He experimented with other colors, but did not adopt them.
Emery influenced Bill’s opinions on book design: supporting a return to 15th-century aesthetics, decreasing spaces between words and after punctuation, reducing spaces between words and between lines. While the fifteenth-century books probably reduced spacing to conserve paper, Bill based his preference on the way the printed page looked. Bill said the margins closest to the binding must be the smallest, followed by the head, fore (outer) and tail margins. Medieval printing experts say the difference between the margins was usually less than 20%. Bill’s fore margins were large to accommodate the shoulder-notes recommended by Emery. The inner margins were so little that rebinding was difficult.
Fonts
After deciding to found the press, Bill collected many books printed in 15th century Europe, as well as books on printing and typography. To research typefaces, he bought examples of every fine type he could find.
Many want to attribute Golden Type to Bill. However, it was probably a joint effort between Bill and Emery, but with Bill taking the leading role. They probably started designing Golden Type in 1889. It was a Roman type inspired by a font used by Nicolas Jenson (c. 1420 – 1480) to publish Pliny’s Historicae naturalis, and a similar font that Jacobus Rubeus = Jacques le Rouge (1470 – 1550) used to publish Leonardus Brunus Aretinus’ Historiae Florentini populi. Emery’s company photographed the type at a large scale to help Bill see the shape of the letters. Bill said that designing Golden Type was the most troublesome task he had ever tried. Bill repeatedly traced the enlarged type, until he felt comfortable with his understanding of the design. After Bill drew the the type design freehand, Emery would photograph the drawings and reproduced them at the correct scale. Bill made modifications at every stage. Bill and Emery were at the leading edge of Victorian technology, pioneering photography and enlarged typefaces.
Punches
Ed cut the punches for the type in 1890. These are used to stamp the matrices used to cast metal type. Charles Reed (1819–81) and Sons = especially, Andrew Holmes Reed (1848–1892) and Talbot Baines Reed (1852 – 1893) carried out the casting. The font, in 14-point size, was completed in the winter of 1890–1891.
With Golden Type, Bill did not bother making an italic or bold version and did not include brackets or dashes. The thickness of the font went well with the wood-engravings it often accompanied. Some critics commented that its large size and width discouraged commercial application. For example, Stanley Morison (1889 – 1967) strongly disliked it and criticized its large capital letters. Bill designed three related typefaces: Golden Type, Troy and Chaucer. Troy was described as a semi-Gothic type designed […] with special regard to legibility made for the publication of the Historyes Of Troye in 1892. It was cut at 18 points by Ed. It was also used for The Tale of Beowulf in 1895. The Chaucer typeface was re-cut at 12 points for use in The Order of Chivalry (1893) and The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400). It was edited by Frederick Startridge Ellis (1830–1901), ornamented with pictures designed by Ed2, engraved on wood by William Harcourt Hooper (1834-1912). It was published in 1896.
Bill was influenced by books published by Shoeffer and Zainer. Peter Schöffer or Petrus Schoeffer (c. 1425 – c. 1503) was an early German printer, who studied in Paris and worked as a manuscript copyist starting in 1451, before apprenticing with Johannes Gutenberg. Zainer was active 1468 – 1478. he produced about 80 books including two German editions of the Bible and the first printed calendar. He came to Augsburg from Strassburg.
It should be noted that with the founding of the Kelmscott Press, Bill was increasingly ill and living largely as an invalid. He suffered from gout, and showed signs of epilepsy. In 1891-08, he took his daughter Jane Alice = Jenny on a tour of Northern France to visit the medieval churches and cathedrals. When they returned to England, Bill spent an increasing amount of time at Kelmscott Manor. He sought treatment from William Broadbent (1835 – 1907), a prominent doctor, who prescribed a holiday in Folkestone, a coastal town in Kent, on the English Channel.
Because of the use of wide fonts, the books themselves had to be wide too. Bill bought handmade paper from Joseph Batchelor (1831? – ?) and Son. He was obsessed with the aesthetics of early handmade paper. He used paper from the Ford Mill in Little Chart, Kent, England. The mill had been started in 1776, but was taken over by Batchelor in 1876. It was powered by a waterwheel until the end of the 1920s, when electrical power was used.
Bill had strict requirements for his paper. It had to be made of linen, made with a two piece frame consisting of a mould – essentially a screen that allowed water to leak through, and a more solid deckle. Large quantities of paper were needed for printing each book. Each piece of handmade paper had its own subtle character, that made Bill’s quest for consistency and perfection difficult to achieve. The mill used watermarks designed by Bill. In addition, the paper had to be produced in unusual sizes. Other publishers admired the paper, which lead to imitation. At Bill’s suggestion, Batchelor adopted the name Kelmscott Handmade, for the paper.
In the 1890s, photoengraving made it easy for entrepreneurs to copy Bill’s typefaces and sell pirated typefaces. When an American foundry offered to sell Bill’s typefaces in the United States, Bill refused. Joseph W. Phinney of the Dickinson Type Foundry in Boston sold a Jenson Old Style that was very similar to Golden Type. Satanick, an imitation Troy type, was available for purchase in 1896. Bill’s own typefounders, Charles Reed and Sons , started selling a Kelmscott Old Style type. Subsequently, Sydney Cockerell (1867 – 1962), the Kelmscott Press’s administrator, threatened legal action against these companies.
Decorations
Some of the Kelmscott books are heavily decorated, with motifs similar to Morris’s other designs for upholstery and wallpaper. In 1913, George Holbrook Jackson (1874-1948), journalist, publisher and Fabian socialist wrote: “The Kelmscott books look not only as if letter and decoration had grown one out of the other; they look as if they could go on growing.”
The title pages of Kelmscott books were usually decorated in a Victorian style. Bill initially designed woodblock initials that were too dark or too large for the pages they appeared on, but later became more proficient in proofing his capitals. The Kelmscott books varied greatly in ornaments. For example, The History of Godefrey of Boloyne is commonly regarded as over-decorated. However, the first few books published by Kelmscott were in the opposite direction, politely called sparsely decorated. Bill’s border and capital designs were similar to his wallpaper designs. Many regard them as inappropriate, not illustrative of their associated texts. Medieval texts had delicate illuminations covering their margins. However, the wood engravings Bill made were heavy. They created production problems. The use of the Chaucer typeface, required the hand press to be reinforced with steel because of the weight of the large ornaments. Bill preferred his wood engravers to replicate his designs exactly, even though this was at odds with John Ruskin’s (1819 – 1900) theory that craftsmen should have influence in the final aesthetic product they help produce. Kelmscott books did not have printing on the reverse side of woodblock pages until the Chaucer, despite this separation of text from illustration being precisely what Bill wanted to avoid in his book designs.
Printer’s marks
Bill designed three different printer’s marks for Kelmscott Press. One was a simple text mark in a rectangle used with octavos and small quartos. The Kelmscott mark with a large rectangle and leafy background was first published in The History of Godefrey of Bolyne and was used mostly for quartos. The last printer’s mark was only used in the Works of Geoffery Chaucer.
In July 1896, Morris went on a cruise to Norway with John, during which he visited Vadsø, one of the most northerly and easterly town in Norway, and Trondheim, 120 km south of Cliff Cottage. During the trip Bill’s physical condition deteriorated and he began experiencing hallucinations. Returning to Kelmscott House, he became a complete invalid, being visited by friends and family, before dying of tuberculosis on 1896-10-03.
Legacy
After the closing of the Kelmscott Press, leftover paper and the type fonts were given to the Chiswick Press. The Kelmscott types were sold to Cambridge University Press in 1940. Woodblocks were given to/ deposited in the British Museum. Presses and related equipment were sold to Essex House Press.
Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American economist and sociologist, was a well-known critic of capitalism. In The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), Veblen developed the concepts of conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure. He called Kelmscott’s books a conspicuous waste arguing that they were less convenient and more expensive than regular books, showing that the purchaser had time and money to waste.
Charles Robert Ashbee (1863 – 1942) was involved in book production and literary work, setting up Essex House Press as a Kelmscott Press imitation, and taking on many of the displaced printers and craftsmen. Between 1898 and 1910 the Essex House Press produced more than 70 titles (some sources state a total of 83). He used the same ink, paper, vellum and presses that Kelmscott used. He designed two type faces for Essex House, Endevour (1901) and Prayer Book (1903), both of which are based on Golden Type. William S. Peterson (1939 – ) called Ashbee’s typefaces “ugly and eccentric” but that the books “have a certain period charm”.
Tom worked as a binder in the Doves Bindery, which carried out the pigskin bindings for the Kelmscott Chaucer. Together with Emery, they founded Doves Press and used similar paper and vellum to Kelmscott. Tom disliked the decorative style of the Kelmscott books. Books from the Doves Press had only an occasional calligraphic initials. They created a font that copied those in Nicolas Jenson’s renaissance publications. Their 5-volume folio Bible remains an important landmark in the history of fine press, and their editions of Goethe inspired the formation of several fine presses in Germany. The most prominent of these were Bremer Press, Janus Presse, Kleukens Presse, Ernst Ludwig Presse, and Serpentis Presse.
It is difficult to assess the roles and interactions of the human participants who were responsible for that press. When I attempt to understand the past, I almost always have to refer to Leslie Poles Hartley (1895 – 1972) and a quotation from his most famous book, The Go-Between (1953): “The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there.”Dove Press refers to The Dove, a riverside pub, located in Hammersmith, London. Having avoided alcohol for half a century, I find it difficult to believe that anyone would name something after a pub. Then, I think back to the situation in London in the mid 19th century, and the belief that miasma = bad air, caused disease. John Snow (1813–1858) is important because of his work in tracing the source of the 1854 Broad Street (Soho, London) cholera outbreak, in which he identified the source as a specific public water pump. Yes, one must remember that water can be unhealthy, and beer can be a more appropriate choice, especially in times past.
The Vale Press, founded by Charles Ricketts (1866 – 1931) with Charles Shannon (1863 – 1937), based their types on 15th-century calligraphy. They published literary classics, which allowed them to focus on the design and layout of the works. Together, they also worked with theatrical costume design and production.
Esther Levi Pissarro nèe Bensusan (1870 – 1951) Pissarro née Bensusan founded the Eragny Press with her husband Lucien Pissarro (1863–1944). Thye produced books illustrated with colour wood-engravings. Esther created the wood engravings from Lucien’s designs. Eragny Press shared type with Vale for a time.
The Ashendene Press was a small private press founded by Charles Harald St John Hornby (1867–1946). It operated from 1895 to 1915 in Chelsea, London and was revived after World War I in 1920, but closed in 1935. It specialized in publishing poetry books and folio versions of classic literature.
In 1902, Elizabeth (1868 – 1940) and her sister Lily Yeats (1866 – 1949) joined Evelyn Gleeson (1855 – 1944) in establishing a craft studio at Dundrum, near Dublin, called Dun Emer. This specialized in printing and other crafts, with Elizabeth in charge of the printing press. Activities took place in Gleeson’s large house, in which a crafts group provided training and work for young women in: bookbinding, printing, weaving and embroidery. They could also live in the house. Bookbinding workshops were a later addition to the studio. Dun Emer was named after the Irish mythical Emer, a figure famous for her artistic skills and beauty. The title-page device of the Dun Emer Press was designed by Elinor Mary Darwin (née Monsell; 1879–1954) and shows Emer standing underneath a tree. The focus of the Press was on publishing literary work by Irish authors. Jack Butler Yeats (1871 – 1957) did much of the illustration work.
Epilogue
Today, using typefaces is easy. Everyone can set up their own press, especially if the product is digital. Even the McLellans did it. In the mid 1990s, we formed Fjellheim Institutt, named after the official name of our house, to produce Åndelig Dyder: En familiehåndbok = Spiritual virtues: a family handbook (literal translation), = The Virtues Guide, by Linda Kavelin Popov, Dan Popov and John Kavelin, in 1996 – a century after Kelmscott Press closed. The book was printed on paper, typically in small quantities, in Steinkjer. Its purpose was never to made a profit, but to ensure that Norwegian families could introduce ethical concepts to their children. We still have a few copies, that we give away when opportunities arise.
Even in the mid 1980s it was possible to obtain professional typesetting quality from a computer, as long as that computer was an Apple Macintosh, an Atari 1040ST or a Commodore Amiga. We owned an Amiga.
Today, it is not the computer that sets the limits, but the software. The first desktop publishing software we used was Aldus PageMaker 5.0, which was introduced in 1993. Aldus was founded by Paul Brainerd (1947 – ) and others in Seattle in 1984. It was acquired by Adobe Systems in 1994. The company was named after 15th-century Venetian printer Aldus Manutius. The program was replaced by InDesign in 2001.
Today Adobe does not sell stand alone copies of its software products, but forces people to work with its cloud environment, making it inherently unsafe. Perhaps the most accessible desktop publishing program is Scribus, a free and open source program, supported on at least 13 operating systems. It offers a vector drawing tool, supports multiple file types, and supports over 200 colors in its palette. It was also one of the world’s first software to support the PDF/X-3 format conversion.
Today, our publication efforts focus on our blogs.
