Typically, I begin a weblog post by writing its title. Nobody has ever accused me of being a good speller. I am better now than I was in elementary school, and increasingly better because the text processing programs I use habitually mark misspelled words by underlining them in red. The good news is that I know the consonants making up the title word here, and their order: s – d – k. In addition, I know, that this title only had a combination of o’s and u’s as vowels, but I can not remember how many of each, or their placement. After all, it was several minutes since I had closed a book with 500 such puzzles, to recreate a puzzle. Thus I began with a known incorrect spelling Sodoko then replaced the o’s with u’s until the red lines disappeared.
Compared to spelling, Sudoku is logical. There is a single objective, and many aids to assist the person achieving the game’s goal. Wikipedia tells us that in classic Sudoku, the objective is to fill a 9 × 9 grid with digits so that each column, each row, and each of the nine 3 × 3 subgrids (referred to as felt = field, in some languages) that compose the grid contains all of the digits from 1 to 9.
In puzzle books and apps, some numbers are printed. In the example above, I have written these in red, so that the task is to find the missing numbers, which are printed in black. In this example, there are 26 numbers printed in red, so my task is to find the remaining 81 – 26 = 55 numbers.
My game involves four deviant actions using non-conventional markings. The first is dot notation. I allow myself to mark up to two potentially correct answers in any square. If one of those numbers is invalidated somewhere, I can add yet another potential answer. I divide each square into a grid of nine dots. The top three represents numbers: 1 – 2 – 3, the middle: 4 – 5 – 6, and the bottom 7 – 8 – 9. Eight of the nine dots are along the margins, only 5 is in the middle of the square. When I know with certainty the correct answer, I write it in the square.
Second, I draw a grid of 2 vertical and 2 horizontal lines representing the Sudoku subgrid layout. This is because, I note the order in which I complete each horizontal or vertical line, as well as the subgrids. I order these by writing a lower-case letters along the top, left side and inside the subgrid, starting with a.
Third, the very first time in each game that I put an answer in a square, I ring the answer, so that I can see where I started.
Fourth, sometimes I am left with a situation where I have no clear answer to write, but two potential answers in one square. I then change one of the potential answer dots in that square to a small asterisk (which I have just learned is not spelled asterix), then play through marking the results in other squares with additional x’s, as required. At some point the sequence of answers will either show itself to be correct or incorrect. If it is correct then I mark the asterisk square, and all of the x squares, with the correct numerical values. If it is incorrect, then I go back and try with the remaining number, which should be correct. The reason for using an asterisk, is that it helps me to remember the square where I started!
One would think that potentially there would be a need for 9 + 9 + 9 = 27 lower-case letters to mark complete entries in rows, columns and sub-grids. The first unit completed is marked with a, followed by b and onwards through the alphabet. Often, one completes two or more of the units simultaneously. In such a situation, the same letter can be used to mark up to three units: a vertical line, a horizontal line and a subgrid. The last entry, in particular, does this. Thus, the last letter I have used is no later in the alphabet than y, but it is often as low as a q. In the example shown, the last letter used was “u”. The row and column marked with u, indicate that the last number put into the grid was 8, at the top right of the grid.
Undoubtedly, many readers are wondering what I do with all of this extra information? The honest answer is, nothing. It is just my approach to playing the game of Sudoku. I play it on a daily basis, so that my brain does not degenerate completely. I also work with Duolingo on a daily basis for the same reason.
This particular puzzle was #447, randomly taken from the book Mega Sudoku (2023), published by Zebra AS. It contains 500 puzzles that are assigned a level: * = beginner (1-40); ** = easy (41 – 190); *** = captivating (191 – 340); **** = challenging (341 – 476); ***** = expert (477 – 500). I began working on this book 2023-07-20, and had completed all the 3 and 4 star puzzles about a year later, in addition to a few 2 and 5 star puzzles. Some day, this book will be recycled to someone/ anyone wanting to start playing Sudoku.
This was my last book of Sudoku puzzles, and my last opportunity to use the methods described here. I have now gone over to using an app on my hand-held device. The main reason has to do with greed. My previous Mega Sudoku books provided 1 000 puzzles, for approximately the same price that 500 puzzles cost in 2023. The app was acquired without any expense. It provides many of the same benefits I appreciate on the paper edition, such as levels of play. It also provides a very large, but not unlimited, number of games. For insights into the mathematics involved, Wikipedia has provided an article about the mathematics of Sudoku.
Origins
Sudoku’s origins can be traced back in time to Chinese culture and the Magic Square puzzle. This involves arranging numbers in a square grid such that each row, column, and diagonal adds up to the same sum. The earliest known Magic Squares is from the period of Emperor Yu (ca. 2200 BCE) who allegedly created a 3×3 Magic Square called the Lo Shu Square. The Lo Shu Square is said to have been discovered on the back of a turtle emerging from the Yellow River. This 3×3 grid contains the numbers 1 to 9, arranged in a way that the sum of each row, column, and diagonal equals 15, as shown below.
There are other magic squares. They all arranges numbers in a grid without repetition and having certain sums. With larger grids came more complex rules.
Modern Sudoku is not based on ancient Chinese number placement puzzles. It emerged in the 18th century and gained popularity in Switzerland and Japan. In 18th century Switzerland, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) studied combinatorics. A Latin square is an arrangement of numbers or symbols in a grid, such that each element appears exactly once in each row and each column. Developments here provided a foundation for the logical reasoning and patterns involved in solving this type of puzzle.
In the late 1970s, Howard Garns (1905 – 1989) developed the modern version of Sudoku, Number Place, with a 9×9 grid with empty spots to fill using a set of simple rules.
Maki Kaji ( 1951 – 2021) was president of Nikoli, a Japanese puzzle manufacturer. He introduced the game to a broader audience when a Number Place puzzle first appeared in Monthly Nikolist in 1984-04 as Sūji wa dokushin ni kagiru (数字は独身に限る) = the digits must be single, with the Japanese dokushin = unmarried person. The name was later abbreviated to Sudoku (数独), which is a registered trademark in Japan.
The global spread of Sudoku can be attributed to Wayne Gould (1945 – ). In 1997 he found a Sudoku book in a bookstore in Tokyo. He then spent 6 years developing a computer program, known as Pappocom Sudoku, that could mass-produce puzzles for the global market. He convinced The Times to publish Sudoku as a regular feature, starting in 2004.
As Sudoku gained popularity puzzle creators introduced variations to add complexity and excitement to the game. Samurai Sudoku combines five overlapping grids, each with its own unique solution. Killer Sudoku introduced mathematical operations and sum constraints, challenging players to calculate and place numbers strategically. Interactive Sudoku apps create an endless variety of Sudoku puzzles, at different levels of difficulty. Some allow players worldwide to compete with each other. This has transformed Sudoku away from paper to internet based screens, complete with social media interaction.
Sudoku engages the brain in logic-based problem-solving. It is claimed that regular playing can improve memory, concentration and critical thinking skills. Problem solving involves structured thinking and the development of a more analytical mindset. It is also claimed that Sudoku can also be used in cognitive therapy. It is used to help patients with memory loss and other cognitive impairments.
For those wanting to compete with others, the World Puzzle Federation (founded in 1992) has hosted a World Sudoku Championship since 2006. Guinness World Records include: the fastest time to complete a Sudoku puzzle; the most puzzles solved in a certain time frame; and, the largest Sudoku grid ever created.
This weblog post is being published on Fechner day, 2024-10-22. It celebrates the day in 1850 when Gustav Fechner decided not to waste his life sleeping, and to make lasting contributions to psychophysics or, as some people call it, experimental psychology. People who want a basic understanding of his life may prefer to read a Wikipedia article about him.
There are two reasons why Gustav Fechner has impinged on my life.
First, one of my children is a grapheme-colour synesthete where letters and numerals are perceived as inherently colored. Synesthesia, more generally, involves perception where stimulation of one sensory/ cognitive pathway leads to an involuntary experiences in a second sensory/ cognitive pathway. Other examples include people experiencing colours/ tastes/ odors, when listening to music.
John Locke (1632 – 1704), in 1690 reported a blind man who said he experienced the colour scarlet when he heard the sound of a trumpet. There is disagreement as to whether this described an instance of synesthesia or was simply metaphoric.
There are two types of synesthesia. 1) projective: when a person sees colors, forms or shapes when stimulated. It is the most commonly experienced, and most widely understood version of synesthesia. 2. associative: when a person feels a very strong but involuntary connection between the stimulus and the sense that it triggers.
For example, in chromesthesia (sound to color), a projector may hear a trumpet, and see a red circle in space, while an associator might hear a trumpet, and think very strongly that it sounds red.
The first medical account came from German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs (1786 – 2014) in 1812. In 1876, Fechner sampled the general public to estimate the size of the population experiencing grapheme-colour synesthesia. A 2013 article in Scientific American puts the number of synesthetes at about 4% of the population.
I am also acquainted with Fechner in terms of three methodologies he developed for experimental psychology. These were developed to find out various thresholds for a population.
Method of limits. An ascending series of stimuli are presented, in which the intensity of a variable stimulus is increased by predetermined steps until it can be perceived on 50 per cent of presentations (for an absolute threshold determination) or until a difference between it and a standard stimulus can be determined.
Method of adjustment. A test person is given control of intensity levels of a stimulus and is instructed to adjust it to the level where it is barely discernible. An average is based on several trials.
Method of constant stimuli. Variable stimuli are presented in random order, with the objecting of finding the smallest intensity that can be detected involving absolute thresholds or the smallest difference from a standard stimulus that can be detected in the case of a difference threshold. Currently, correctly identifying 75 per cent of presentations for detection or discrimination is used to set limits.
What I find most interesting about Fechner is his nature, divided as it was between scientist and metaphysical philosopher. His career was an unsuccessful attempt to unite these sides.
On one side, Fechner was at heart a positivist, advocating observation and measurement in science. This encouraged an interest in phenomenology and verificationism in philosophy. On the other side, his interest in metaphysics demanded a comprehensive cosmology, unattainable through scientific investigation. As the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy asks, in its article about him, but fails to answer: How could he be both a cautious and sober scientist and a daring and imaginative metaphysician?
It acknowledges that these two sides represent conflicting approaches, romanticism and empiricism. Of particular importance to him were the writings of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854), Lorenz Oken (1779 – 1851) and Henrik Steffans (1773 – 1845) , where the emphasis was on a larger picture. However, since he was a student of physics and physiology at the University of Leipzig, he was influenced by his mentors, Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann (1801 – 1877) and Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795 – 1878), engaged in the experimental psychology of perception.
Positivist writing include a two volume work: Elemente der Psychophysik (1860) = Elements of Pyschophysics, parts of which were translated by Herbert Sidney Langfeld (1912) about the relationship between the psychic and physical. Because it stressed the dependence of the mental on its physical expression and embodiment, Fechner’s philosophy of mind has been categorized as materialism. Metaphysically, he is classified as a panpsychist, someone who believes the cosmos is psychic. For a modern, logical proof of this see this Wikipedia article which contains a summary of Thomas Negel’s (1937 – ) work on Panpsychism originally published in Moral Questions (1979). Fechner published his work on the subject in: Nanna oder über das Seelenleben der Pflanzen (1848) and Zend-Avesta oder über die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits (1851).
Fechner believed that metaphysics should follow, not lead, the empirical sciences. He believed these to be autonomous, with a foundation independent of philosophy.
Any attempt to understand Fechner must come to terms with both sides of his personality. Many studies of Fechner are one-sided, emphasizing one side of him at the expense of the other. Indeed, the view supported by many modern philosophers is that Fechner’s philosophy is incomprehensible without knowing about his life.
The writer of this weblog post dressed in a shirt from Thunderbird design. This was a bespoke replacement for a black shirt with geometrical shapes (triangles, rectangles and circles) in bright colours, purchased in the late 1960s, referred to then as the jazz shirt, that has disappeared in the intervening fifty plus years. This jazz shirt 2 is nothing like the original, but is appreciated for its organic patterns, bright colours and black background. It is 50% recycled fabric. Photo: Trish McLellan.
This post is about people who are ardent followers/ consumers of fashion trends. Yet, I also wanted it to include fashion producers, especially those working as artisans in studios, or serfs in factories. The title is Fashionista, despite the title being a letdown from my aspirations. It refers to avid leaders and followers of fashion. It has nothing to do with a modern line of Barbie-brand dolls with more body-shape options (curvy, petite, tall) than the originals.
My wish for those unfortunate fashion industry serfs, in Bangladesh and elsewhere, is that they be paid a living wage, hopefully more, and have a better work-life balance. The artisans could also appreciate these same benefits. For the individuals/ majority shareholders who own the large fashion houses, and some of their patrons, have more than enough income, I hope some form of limitarianism will reduce their incomes, wealth and indifference to human suffering.
People who do not fit into traditional social roles can suffer from outbreaks of mental illness. One category of problems involves deviant behaviors. Labels have led to people being given different forms of care (read: inhumane treatment), depending on the time and place, and social status. At the back of my mind, I recall reading about the situation in nineteenth century Britain, with asylums overfilled with a mixture of people. Some would be struggling with mental illnesses. Others were dumped there because their social or economic problems led them to being alienated from society. Later, in the 20th century, these patients would be subject to horrifying levels of abuse: typically lobotomies and electroconvulsive therapy. These therapies led to many other issues. Unsurprisingly, mental health (of workers or of clients) has rarely been covered by the fashion media.
Most work in the fashion industry is competitive. It allows fashion corporations to pay their employees less. Many participants are struggling with mental illness, especially trauma. Yet, it is difficult to find truthiness about this in the media. For some, fashion trauma is nothing more than a click bait term, to increase the sale of products and services. I came across one writer who thought that her poor mental health was her own fault for not buying the right things, garments especially. I think she imagined that having good mental health, was like being in good physical shape. The answer to a less than perfectly performing body is a gym membership. One does not actually have to work out in the gym, because everyone knows how much time-press people are subjected to. One does not have to measure one’s mass, because everyone knows there will be periods where that mass will increase. In the long-term, fat will be traded in for muscle mass! Deluded Belief 1: Gym membership is an important first step, towards possessing a new improved body.
Fashion, can assist on the journey to increase muscle mass. Some clothing items are more flattering than others. So, in addition to a gym membership, it is important to buy some stop-gap clothing that will conceal flab and other temporary imperfections. Deluded belief 2: When one has attained that more muscular body, clothing can be discarded, and real fashion items purchased.
Being a fashionista requires a re-disposition of time. One should show an interest in fashions, either be attending assorted fashion weeks, or watching videos about them; reading or, preferably, writing fashion books; attending fashion exhibitions or museums or even art galleries, where one can find historical fashion items either on display or totally lacking, depending on the art being viewed.
One learns that it is especially important to follow micro-trends. Otherwise, others might question one’s sincerity. Making frivolous purchases can be expensive, and whimsical, but real fashionistas will explain that this is precisely why credit cards were invented.
Relaxation is not a term used in the fashion industry. The fashion world doesn’t allow for downtime. Despite this, burnout has become a systemic issue, but perhaps not an approved discussion topic between fashion employees. Designers experience panic attacks since there is never enough time to complete a collection in the allotted time. Models have their eating disorders. Garment workers typically suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to unsafe working conditions. Others experience this mental and behavioral disorder from enduing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person’s life or well-being. Fashion school students are exhausted, while their teachers are depressed from having to deal with them. Only the mannequins seem to be resistant to mental health issues.
Fashion as a system means that those in the higher echelons of the fashion world are God’s gift to humankind, but those immediately and further below will never ascend, or even be good enough. Social media contributes by intensifying insecurities and by encouraging consumerism. An alphabet soup of people seek employment in the industry, but face additional challenges, some related to personal safety.
I also came across some interesting statements. For example, one person claimed that fashion was supposed to make people happy, and even encouraged people to dress-up at home! It was almost as if people were dressing for themselves, and not others. Sara Ahmed in The Promise of Happiness (2010), examined happiness through feminist, queer and racial study lenses. She questions if the popular conception of happiness is actually worth the sacrifices made. In particular, she explored how, now as well as in previous generations, the ideal of the happy housewife had been and still is being used to justify forms of gendered labour. According to Ahmed, the crisis of happiness is not the failure of traditional social ideals, but the failure to follow them.
When I look at my life in Norway, and compare it with my earlier life in Canada, I am a happier person. It is acceptable to be a mediocre person, and to do an adequate job. There is no need to excel. Six out of the top seven happiest countries in the world for 2024 were Northern European. Five of them Nordic. Finland was at the top with an overall score of 7.741, followed by Denmark (7.583), Iceland (7.525), Sweden (7.344), Israel (7.341), the Netherlands (7.319), and Norway (7.302). Other countries where other readers of this blog live (or have citizenship) include Australia: 10 = 7.06, New Zealand: 11= 7.03, Canada: 15 = 6.90, Ireland: 17 = 6.84, and USA: 23 = 6.73. With the exception of Iceland, that remained the same as in 2023, all of the countries mentioned here were on a downward trend.
To construct the index, researchers analyzed comprehensive Gallup polling data from 143 countries for the previous three years, specifically monitoring performance in six particular categories: gross domestic product per capita, social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom to make your own life choices, generosity of the general population, and perceptions of internal and external corruption levels.
Janteloven (Danish & Norwegian) = The Law of Jante (English), is a code of conduct used to express social disapproval of individuality and, especially, personal success. It comes from the work of Danish-Norwegian author Aksel Sandemose (1899 – 1965) first formulated as ten rules in his satirical novel En flyktning krysser sitt spor = A Fugitive Crosses His Tracks (1933). The attitudes are older.
Copenhagen Fashion Week
The Law of Jante is used to explain why, starting in 2018, Copenhagen Fashion Week announced that designers would have to adhere to a set of minimum sustainability standards, starting in 2023. These are:
Strategic Directions
We work strategically with embedding sustainability and international standards on human right
We include diversity and equality in our management approach and actively consider these aspects when hiring staff, especially for management positions
We do not destroy unsold clothes from previous collections
Design
We design to increase the quality and value of our products economically and materially and inform our customers about the value of longevity
We find a second life for our samples
Smart material choices
At least 50% of our collection is either certified, made of preferred materials or new generation sustainable materials, upcycled, recycled or made of deadstock
We have a preferred materials list in place
We have a list of restricted substances in place, following the requirements of the EU REACH Directive, and engage with our suppliers to ensure compliance
Our collection is fur-free
Working conditions
We are committed to exercising due diligence in our supply chain according to international guidelines and standards, and work with our suppliers to ensure e.g., freely chosen employment, secure employment or no child labour
We are committed to operating a safe, healthy and respectful working environment for all our employees, free from harassment and discrimination and where everyone enjoys equal opportunities regardless of gender, ethnicity, age, political/religious/ sexual orientation, physical appearance and ability
Consumer engagement
Our in-store and online customer service staff is well informed about our sustainability strategy
We educate and inform our customers about our sustainability practices on multiple platforms
We do not utilise single-use plastic packaging in store or for online orders but offer recyclable, recycled or repurposable alternatives
Showcase
Our set design and showcase production is zero waste
We do not utilise single-use plastic packaging backstage during fashion week but offer recyclable, recycled or repurposable alternatives
We offset or inset the carbon footprint of our showcase
We are signatory of the Danish Fashion Ethical Charter and consider diversity and inclusivity when casting models
In 2024, Copenhagen Fashion Week made updates to the framework. It still comprises the six focus areas attempting to implement a holistic approach. Marie Busck, responsible for the framework, commented: The revisions of the requirements are important. We need to ensure that the framework reflects the developments of the legal landscape for fashion and textiles which currently is unfolding from the EU. In addition, we are also keen on integrating the valuable learnings from applying the framework and the input received from other stakeholders, making actions more clear and concise.
Some of the things I have noted are the absence of fur, along with discussions of the appropriateness of faux fur, made of petroleum products. There was also recognition that women, including models, could become pregnant which could affect their appearance. To be relevant, fashion has to incorporate people of all ages. This means that the family, as well as the individual, has to be taken into consideration. This means making products for children of assorted ages from birth onward, and even spouses. I think it was already acknowledged that women worked, and that people lived in climates that experienced winters.
Manifestations of sustainability included: the elimination of waste, unrecyclable seat cards or set pieces that can’t be reused; and, designs should use at least 50 percent recycled materials.
An anonymous crusader set up a scarecrow-like sculpture wearing a Make Less t-shirt and a grumpy frown outside several shows. The most sustainable approach would be to shut down Fashion Week. Eszter Áron of Aeron integrated her sourcing team into her design team so the two could be intertwined from the start, ensuring that material considerations were given equal weight to the designers’ imaginations. Rotate shifted 60 percent of the sequins in its latest going-out lineup to preferred materials that sparkled just as much. It’s creative directors Jeanette Madsen and Thora Valdimars, tapped Danish and Dutch universities to help them research new production techniques that won’t dim their sparkle. OpéraSport cofounder Awa Malina Stelter said her label’s first collection in 2019 already met Copenhagen’s 2023 standards, with organic, GOTS (The Global Organic Textile Standard)-certified cotton and other fabrics made from 90 percent industrial waste. Stine Goya of her namesake label, commented: If anything, moving toward more sustainable practices makes the design process more exciting and brings a new dimension to our work.
Copenhagen Fashion Week may be well-intentioned, but the result is more nuanced (read: less than perfect). Responsibly-sourced materials is a vague term, and can be interpreted in many different ways. Similarly, 50 percent recycled materials says nothing about the appropriateness of the materials used.
Chana Rosenthal, principal and founder at reDesign, commented: The vagueness actually makes it more appealing in a way to brands, because part of the [sustainability] challenge has been brands saying they’re doing something and then they’re not actually doing it. But also, it takes time. This isn’t something that’s easy to transition.
Lisa Bergstrand, founder of Bergstrand Consultancy, a firm that advises brands on sustainability initiatives, said: For there to be meaningful change in the long term, I think a closer look needs to be taken at fashion’s focus on trends, which is one of the biggest drivers of overproduction and overconsumption.
Standardized environmental checks seem the most promising path to encourage suppliers to shift their priorities in a way that makes more eco-conscious production accessible.
One of the major problems is that of scale. Fashion houses are wanting to produce profits for shareholders. That is not a concern of mine. I am more interested in workers being able to live off their work, without mental health issues. Thus, I am a supporter of the 国潮 (Chinese) = Guochao (English) movement, a trend of preferring homegrown designers which incorporate aspects of Chinese history and culture. This applies specifically to Gen Z buyers, but there are caveats, and pushback that impede its wider adoption. Issues include subpar quality, plagiarism, and high prices.
Closing notes
My fashion career began early, as a child model, with photographs even appearing in some forgotten Vancouver area newspaper! These days, my aspirations never exceed a faint hope that someone, anyone will regard me as being unusually, but pleasantly dressed, as I enter the local co-op. My current aspirations never exceed the geographical boundaries of Inderøy municipality, and its population that has finally reached 7 000 residents.
As my more intimate friends know, I faced taboos about wearing assorted colours in my childhood. It might be easier to list those I was allowed to wear: blue, grey and brown, with white shirts and undergarments. I had ample yellow rainwear, since it was visible. In strictness order, I was forbidden to wear: green, black, purple, red and orange, In general, these sanctions were not applied to tartans.
Since I live in Inderøy I attempt to support local companies: Husby Optics (founded 1854-10-04 – 170 years ago, last week) for eye wear, Thunderbird Design, for most of my clothing needs, and Kornelia smykker og design, for jewellry.
Lately, I have begun to question if I really am a normcore person. Wikipedia tells us: Normcore wearers are people who do not wish to distinguish themselves from others by their clothing. This does not mean that they are unfashionable people who wear whatever is easiest, but rather that they consciously choose clothes that are functional and undistinguished. The “normcore” trend has been interpreted as a reaction to ever-changing fashion trends, as normcore clothes are generally seen as timeless and unaffected by trends. Normcore clothes are unisex and are usually casual items such as hoodies, T-shirts, polo shirts, short-sleeved buttoned shirts, sweatpants, chinos, jeans, shorts, and sneakers; items such as suit jackets, ties, blouses, boots, and dress shoes are avoided.
On that list I only wear chinos regularly, but I also wear long-sleeved buttoned shirts (with two pockets). That said, I have several suits that have spent my retirement years hanging in a closet. My favourite is made of Donegal tweed, tailored by Kevin and Howlin, Nassau Street, Dublin, some years before the new millennium. I have no objections to being buried in it, along with a shirt recently made by Trish, but without a tie, I don’t know if dead people wear shoes in their coffins, but I have a pair of bright green Allbirds that will do nicely, if required. Yes, burial clothes are a person’s last opportunity to make a fashion statement. Select the garments wisely!
It would be heart warming to write that the the first transatlantic cable between Europe and north America landed at Heart’s Content on the Bay de Verde Peninsula, in Newfoundland. Unfortunately, it wasn’t, as described below. Despite this, Heart’s Content is world famous for the second trans-Atlantic telegraph cable, one laid between Heart’s Content and Valentia, Ireland. It was this cable that lead to the establishment of the Heart’s Content Cable Station.
Today’s weblog post is less about our visit to Newfoundland, and Heart’s Content, than it is about the history of connecting two continents with communication cables.
Alasdair at the park in front of the Heart’s Content Cable Station.
Preface
It is difficult to state, with any degree of precision, the person and date for the invention of the telegraph. There are just too many things and people involved, including an electrochemical telegraph invented by Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring (1755 – 1830) in 1809. He also worked with undersea communication cables in 1811, when he and Pavel Schilling (1786–1837) made a trial with a wire cable which was sheathed in rubber, in Munich.
Samual Morse (1791 – 1872) gets credited with the invention not only of the machinery used, known as the one wire telegraph, from 1837, but for the code used to transmit messages. There inventions competed with others, such as one by William Fothergill Cooke (1806 – 1879) and Charles Wheatstone (1802 – 1875) who invented and patented a needle telegraph in 1837. The receiver consisted of a number of needles that could be moved by electromagnetic coils to point to letters on a board. This feature was appreciated by early users who were unwilling to learn codes, and employers who did not want to invest in staff training. In 1838 they installed the first commercial telegraph, on the Great Western Railway, running 21 km from Paddington station to West Drayton. It was a five-needle, six-wire system. It was far too complex to be reliable.
In 1838 William O’Shaughnessy (1809 – 1889) lay an underwater cable across the River Hooghly at Calcutta. He covered his wire with pitch, then enclosed it within a split cane and wrapped tarred yarn around the outside. Charles Wheatstone later and independently developed a similar system.
In 1842 Samuel Morse transmitted an electric current under New York Harbour. The wire was insulated with tarred hemp and an outer sheathing of rubber. In 1845, Ezra Cornell (1807 – 1874) lay two copper wires, enclosed in cotton and insulated with rubber, then placed in a lead pipe, across the Hudson River between New York and Fort Lee. It worked initially, but was damaged beyond repair by drifting ice in 1846. Also in 1846, Charles Samual West (1809 – ca. 1889) succeeded in transmitting telegraph messages to a ship in Portsmouth Harbour, England, through a rubber insulated wire. In 1842, Samuel Morse lay an underwater cable in New York Harbor and succeeded in sending messages across it. A few years later, Ezra Cornell placed a telegraph cable across the Hudson River from New York City to New Jersey.In 1842, Samuel Morse lay an underwater cable in New York Harbor and succeeded in sending messages across it. A few years later, Ezra Cornell placed a telegraph cable across the Hudson River from New York City to New Jersey.
In the late 1840s Werner von Siemens (1816 – 1892) invented a machine for applying gutta-percha (a type of rubber) to wire.
In 1850, 25 nautical miles (nm) = 46 km of cable from the Submarine Telegraph Company was lain from Dover to Calais. It soon failed, because it wasn’t armoured. The company then ordered, a new, larger cable with four insulated cores, that was armoured before laying. This cable became the first working oceanic submarine cable.
Heart’s Content & the Trans-Atlantic Telegraph Cable
The key to getting a personal guided tour of the Cable Station at Heart’s Content is to arrive late. Here is Cynthia doing her best to get rid of me, before closing time.
Heart’s Content owes much of its reputation to the American businessman Cyrus Field (1819 – 1892) who in 1855 chose Trinity Bay as the terminus of his Transatlantic telegraph cable. Originally, the landing site was to be at Bay Bulls Arm, directly across Trinity Bay from Heart’s Content. It arrived there on 1858-08-05. However, due to a malfunction, its operation broke down after three weeks, and was terminated on 1858-10-20. On its first day of operation, Queen Victoria sent President James Buchanan the first message in Morse code.
On Friday, 1866-07-13, the Great Eastern left Valentia, Ireland with 2 730 nautical miles (nm) = 5 056 km of cable in her hold. On 1866-07-27, 1 852 nm = 3 430 km of this cable lay at the bottom of the Atlantic ocean, while the Great Eastern was anchored in Trinity Bay. The cable was laid at a rate of 5.5 nm/ hour = a speed of 5.5 knots = about 10 km/ hour.
This was the fifth attempt in twelve years to establish a transatlantic telegraphic link. Cyrus Field consulted with oceanographer Matthew Maury (1806 – 1873), about the feasibility of connecting Ireland with Newfoundland, and with Samuel Morse (1791 – 1872) about other aspects of its technical feasibility. Once those questions had been Field sought financial backing in New York from Chandler White (? – ?), Peter Cooper (1791 – 1883), Marshall Roberts (1813 – 1880) and Moses Taylor (1806 – 1882), founding with Cyrus and Dudley Field (1805 – 1894) the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company. Submarine cables were laid between Cape Ray, Newfoundland, and Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, and then between Cape Breton Island and the Nova Scotia mainland. Thus,St. John’s, Newfoundland, and New York City were connected in 1855.
Field and nine associates then formed the American Telegraph Company (ATC). By mutual agreement with other telegraph companies, regional operating boundaries were established, with Newfoundland, Nova Scotia (?), New Brunswick, and the United States’ eastern seaboard became ATC’s territory.
The next several months were spent in establishing the Atlantic Telegraph Company, choosing the cable design, manufacturing the cable, finding backers, and securing support for the project from both the British and American governments. Note: It must be remembered that, at the time, Newfoundland was not part of Canada, but British territory.
Cable laying attempt 1: On 1857-08-05, the American steam frigate Niagara and the Royal Navy’s steamer Agamemnon left Valentia Bay, Ireland. Each held half-an- ocean’s length of cable. However, after laying about four hundred nm = 640 km, of cable the line snapped, and could not be recovered from the ocean floor.
Improvements were made to the machinery for laying the cable, a better insulating compound was developed, William Thomson invented a mirror galvanometer, used to detect cable signals, and still more capital was raised. The cable was stored on the docks at Plymouth, England. This was reloaded onto the Niagara and the Agamemnon.
Attempt 2: The ships left Valentia on 1858-06-10. Only 160 nm of cable were laid when it broke.
Attempt 3: Field pushed to try again immediately. The two ships met in mid Atlantic ocean on 1858-07-29, spliced the cable, then laid the cables in opposite directions. Both reached their respective ports in Newfoundland and Ireland on 1858-08-05. The cable was inoperable by 1858-09-18.
There was little interest in reviving the cable laying venture in either Britain or USA. The British Board of Trade set up a special commission to investigate submarine cables, that was active in 1859 and 1860. Members of the commission included Charles Wheatstone and Latimer Clark (1822 – 1898). They carried out experiments on the construction, insulating, testing, and laying of cables. Their conclusion was… a well-insulated cable, properly protected, of suitable specific gravity, made with care, and tested under water throughout its progress with the best known apparatus, and paid into the ocean with the most improved machinery, possesses every prospect of not only being successfully laid in the first instance, but may reasonably be relied upon to continue for many years in an efficient state for the transmission of signals.
By this time, the British government had lost interest in the cable project, and the United States was in a civil war. Despite this, in 1862 Glass, Elliott and Co. offered to make and lay the new cable and to put up $125,000 as well, in return for reimbursement of materials and labor costs, plus an additional 20% of the cost of the line. With this, Field found private investors in Britain and USA to raise the necessary capital, with London railroad entrepreneur Thomas Brassey (1805 – 1870) being critical, encouraging Manchester industrialist John Pender (1816 – 1896) and the Gutta Percha Company to form Telegraph Construction and Maintenance (TC&M) responsible for all aspects of the cable’s construction and the remaining necessary capital.
This print was made by Robert Dudley (1826 – 1909), official artist at work on the Great Eastern under the direction of its captain, James Anderson (1824 – 1893): His task was to record in the form of an illustrated book the minutiae of the voyage, charting in detail the technical processes, life on board, the movements of the ocean, departures and arrivals and (it was hoped) a successful outcome. This photo shows the SS Great Eastern starting to lay the trans-Atlantic telegraph cable in 1865-07-23 at Valentia, Ireland. Also shown are other ships involved in the cable laying process: Terrible, Sphinx, Hawk & Caroline. Of particular interest in the mechanism used to pay out the cable on the Great Eastern.
The SS Great Eastern was an iron sail-powered, paddle wheel and screw-propelled steamship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 – 1859), and built by John Scott Russell (1808 – 1882) & Company in London, but registered in Liverpool. It was in service from 1859 to 1889: length = 211 m, beam = 25 m, draft = 6.1 – 9.1 meters (load dependent), with a maximum displacement of 32 160 tons = 29.175 Gg, with a double hull and initially with sufficient coal bunkers giving it a range of about 11 000 km. Sources vary on how much this was later reduced, but it needed a range exceeding 4 000 nm = 7 500 km to cross the Atlantic. The Great Eastern captured the popular imagination as the largest ship afloat until the RMS Celtic (1901 – 1928). Because the Great Eastern had always lost money, she was auctioned in 1864-01, The purchaser was Daniel Gooch (1816 – 1889) who, with the financial help of Field and Brassey, bought the Great Eastern for $125 000. It had cost over $6 million to build. It was put at the disposal of the cable laying expedition. Note: The 1800s saw the GBP to USD exchange rate to be about GBP 1 = ca USD 5, except during periods of war. The GBP 1 was as low as USD 3.62 during the Napoleonic wars (1803 -1815), but as high as USD 10 during the US Civil war and its aftermath (1861 – 1875).
Attempt 4: On 1865-07-23, the Great Eastern lay cable manufactured according to higher technical specifications. Yet, the cable once again snapped and was lost only 1 000 km from Newfoundland. The improved methods of making and laying the cable were proven sound, and there was less skepticism about any next attempt failing.
Attempt 5: Capital was raised, the Anglo-American Telegraph Company formed, a new cable was constructed, the Great Eastern began laying cable on 1866-07-13 and on 1866-07-27, the cable was landed and began operating at Heart’s Content. The Great Eastern then returned to the location where the 1865 cable had been lost, retrieved it, spliced it, and paid out the remaining distance to Newfoundland. By 1866-09-08 two telegraph lines were sending messages across the Atlantic.
With it’s location on the east coast of Trinity Bay, Heart’s Content is better sheltered from storms, proving itself to be a good location for operating the trans-Atlantic cables. Two more cables were laid from Valentia to Heart’s Content in 1873 and 1874, then another two in 1880 and 1894.
After landing at Heart’s Content, it is then sent to the Cable Station, which the signals are processed.
Messages arriving at Heart’s Content, had to be sent onward to New York and elsewhere. Field also provided a cable from Newfoundland to Baddeck, Cape Breton Island, where a telegraph house was built in 1861 that contained the Trans-Oceanic Cable Company office.
In 1918 the cable station was enlarged to serve increased communication volume of the Anglo-American Telegraph Company’s successor, Western Union, that had taken over the business in 1912. The station lasted until 1965, when it closed. Much of the reason for this closure was the replacement of telegraph with telephone. In 1968, the cable building was bought by the Newfoundland Government as an historic site, to be transformed into a communications museum. On 1974–07-27, 108 years to the day, after the 1866 landing of the transatlantic cable at Heart’s Content, the museum officially opened. We visited the museum 50 years and 3 days later = 2024-07-30!
Heart’s Content Cable Station
The Canadian and the Republic of Ireland governments want to create a transboundary World Heritage Site consisting of both the station at Heart’s Content and the station on Valentia Island. On 2022-12-20, Heart’s Content Cable Station and Valentia Cable Station were officially submitted to the UNESCO as a site entitled Transatlantic Cable Ensemble.
A reply from Tara Bishop, Site Supervisor at the museum: Generally all visitors are offered a guided your of the exhibit unless there is a time constraint that doesn’t allow ample time to do so.
Clarenville & TAT-1
The first radio-based transatlantic telephone call that began at 9:35 (New York time; 14:35 London time) on 2027-01-07 from the 26th floor of the AT&T building, 125 Broadway, New York City. It traveled over 5 000 km, via wire to a radio transmitter at Rocky Point, Long Island, New York State and then by radio waves to a radio receiving station at Rugby, England, then onward by wire to London. The return conversation went from London via wire to Cupar, Scotland, from there via radio waves to a receiving station at Houlton, Maine, and finally by wire back to New York City. This inaugurated In 1927 a 3 minute call cost £9 = ca US$45. The purchasing power of US$1 = US$18 in 2024, = US$ 810 for a 3 minute call. This system handled slightly more than 800 calls a day.
The main challenges with increasing traffic volume were technology related. Many advances came with developments during World War II. These included: coaxial cable, polyethylene insulation (replacing gutta-percha), reliable vacuum tubes for submerged repeaters and a general improvement in carrier equipment. Transistors were not considered since they were a recent invention with unknown longevity.
Route 1 was used for the trans-Atlantic telegraph cables, Route 2 was used for the TAT-1 telephone cables. Image: Bell Telephone System.
In North America, after a 1952 submarine telephone cable proved successful between Florida and Cuba, discussion emerged about a cable between North America and Europe in 1953, with the North American end ultimately proposed to be Clarenville.
There were to be two main cables, one for each direction of transmission. Each cable was produced and laid in three sections, two shallow-water armored sections, and one continuous central section 1,500 nautical miles (2,800 km) long. The electronic repeaters were designed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories of the United States and they were inserted into the cable at 37-nautical-mile (69 km) intervals – a total of 51 repeaters in the central section.
Clarenville was a junction on the Newfoundland Railway, that operated from 1898–1949 when it was merged into the Canadian National Railway (CN), before it was abandoned in 1988. The junction resulted in a branch line to the Bonavista Peninsula, from the main line. The construction of the Trans-Canada Highway through the community, completed in 1965 helped it become a service centre for central-eastern Newfoundland, serving 96 000 people, in 90 communities within a 100 km radius. There are claims that about 70% of Newfoundland & Labrador’s population live within two hours of Clarenville.
TAT-1, the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable system, was laid between Clarenville and Kerrera, Oban, Scotland. Two cables were laid between 1955 and 1956 with one cable in each direction. It was inaugurated 1956-08-25. Each cable was able to carry 35 channels = simultaneous telephone calls. A 36th channel could carry up to 22 simultaneous telegraph messages.
At the land-end in Gallanach Bay near Oban, Scotland, the cable was connected to coaxial (and then 24-circuit carrier lines) carrying the transatlantic circuits via Glasgow and Inverness to the International Exchange at Faraday Building in London. On the other end, from Clarenville a terrestrial line carried signals about 100 km to Terranceville, where another 480 km long submarine cable crossed the Cabot Strait ending up in Sydney Mines, Nova Scotia. From there the communications traffic was routed to the US border by a microwave radio relay link, and in Brunswick, Maine the route joined the main US network and branched to Montreal to connect with the Canadian network.
In 2024, 35 simultaneous conversations is not impressive. Yet, I find the speed of cable-laying impressive, 6 knots = 11 km/h, despite it being just marginally faster than that of 1865 = ca. 10 km/h.
The cables were laid over the summers of 1955 and 1956, with the majority of the work done by the cable shipHMTS Monarch. At the land-end in Gallanach Bay near Oban, Scotland, the cable was connected to coaxial (and then 24-circuit carrier lines) carrying the transatlantic circuits via Glasgow and Inverness to the International Exchange at Faraday Building in London. At the cable landing point in Newfoundland the cable joined at Clarenville, then crossed the 300-mile (480 km) Cabot Strait by another submarine cable to Sydney Mines, Nova Scotia. From there the communications traffic was routed to the US border by a microwave radio relay link, and in Brunswick, Maine the route joined the main US network and branched to Montreal to connect with the Canadian network.
HMTS (later Cable Ship) Monarch, the 5th cable-laying ship of that name, as she appeared in 1956. Photo: General Post Office, owner of the vessel, at the time.
Opened on September 25, 1956, TAT-1 carried 588 London-US calls and 119 London-Canada calls in the first 24 hours of public service.
The original 36 channels were 4 kHz. The increase to 48 channels was accomplished by narrowing the bandwidth to 3 kHz. Later, an additional three channels were added by use of C Carrier equipment. Time-assignment speech interpolation (TASI) was implemented on the TAT-1 cable in June 1960 and effectively increased the cable’s speach capacity from 37 (out of 51 available channels) to 72.
TAT-1 carried the Moscow-Washington hotline between the American and Soviet heads of state, using a teleprinter to avoid misinterpretations. This link became operational on 1963-07-13, motivated by communication delays during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Other TAT cables were subsequently laid. TAT-1 was retired in 1978.
Back in Norway, I started to read Arthur C. Clarke’s (1917 – 2008) Voices Across the Sea (1974, 2nd edition). I am glad that it was not the first edition from 1958, because the second edition looks at the future of transoceanic communication, including the use of satellites. Fortunately, for the world, there is unexpected progress. In 2024 people read fewer books, but rely on websites.
For me, as a technologist, that includes sites with a focus on fibre cables, possibly without even mentioning satellites. My choice of a website is: https://atlantic-cable.com/ No, it is not just about transatlantic cables, but undersea communication, generally. Its subtitle is: History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications from the first submarine cable of 1850 to the worldwide fiber optic network.
Connections: In 2000, my wife, Trish, and I visited Field, British Columbia, home to about 170 souls in the Kicking Horse River valley within Yoho National Park. It is 1 256 m high, and 27 km west of Lake Louise on the Trans-Canada Highway. It was named for Cyrus West Field. The purpose of our visit was to visit the Burgess Shales, a fossil-bearing deposit noted for the exceptional preservation of the soft parts of its 508 million years old (middle Cambrian) fossils.
Newfoundland & Labrador Conclusions
This is the last of the series about Newfoundland & Labrador. At some future date, I hope to publish a weblog post with recommendations for visiting Newfoundland, especially for people with an interest in transportation and communication, including amateur radio operators.
At the end of the trip, Alasdair answered some questions. These are followed by my own answers.
Did I enjoy the trip to Newfoundland? Yes. / Yes. Will I be back? I doubt it. / No. Would I recommend it? Not really. / It is for people with specific interests.
Alasdair concludes: The problem is that although there are some very quaint and interesting things to see, they are hundreds of km from each other. Most of the other tourists we saw and met were seniors. Strikes me it’s a place to go when one has been everywhere else.
